UNIT ONE
Syntax of the Sentences
1.
The Simple Sentence, Its Kinds and Parts
A sentence is an expression of a thought or feeling by means of a word or words used in such form and manner
as to convey the meaning intended.
Kinds of Sentences
Classification: there are four kinds:
I. The exclamatory sentence
The exclamatory sentence, uttering
an outcry, or giving expression to a command, wish, desire, in its written form often closing with an exclamation point. An exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling. An
exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamation mark.
Ex: Oh! Ouch! What a noise the engine makes! Look! Don’t you touch that! Come in. write soon.
This is probably the oldest form of the sentence.
II. The Declarative Sentence:
The declarative Sentence, stating
a fact, or asserting something as a fact. A declarative sentence makes a statement.
A declarative sentence ends with a period.
Ex: A day has twenty- four hours. Kind words are the music of the world. The house will be built on a hill
III. Imperative - An imperative sentence gives a command.
Example: Cheryl, try the other door.
Sometimes the subject of an imperative sentence
(you) is understood.
IV. The Interrogative Sentence:
The Interrogative Sentence,
asking a question, in its written form closing with an interrogation point. In a question requiring (yes or no) for an answer
the personal part of the verb usually stands in the first place.
Ex: Are you going?
However, the question is
asked in a tone of surprise, the form is that of a declarative sentence, but it is spoken with rising tone:
Ex: You are going?
We may also employ the declarative
form when we do not understand a statement and ask for the repetition of it:
Ex: He went where? = Where
did you say he went?
Elsewhere the question is
introduced by an interrogative pronoun, an interrogative adjective or an interrogative adverb.
Ex: Pronoun
who, (whose, whom), what, which (one)
Adjective
what, which
Adverb
when, where, why, how, whence
UNIT TWO
Essential
Elements of a Sentence
Subject and Predicate
Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a
predicate. The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject.
In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in braces ({}), while the subject is highlighted.
Ex:
Judy {runs}.
Judy and her dog {run on the beach
every morning}.
In a normal sentence both
subject and predicate are present, but sometimes the one or the other may be absent, and yet the sentence may be a complete
expression of thought:
Ex: Yes, No, Oh! Ouch! Fred!
(Calling out form him to come in)
To determine the subject of a sentence, first
isolate the verb and then make a question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.
Ex: The audience littered the theatre floor with
torn wrappings and spilled popcorn.
The verb in the above sentence is "littered."
Who or what littered? The audience did. "The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate (which always includes
the verb) goes on to relate something about the subject: what about the audience? It "littered the theatre floor with torn
wrappings and spilled popcorn."
Unusual
Sentences
Imperative sentences (sentences that give a command
or an order) differ from conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is understood rather than expressed.
Ex: Stand on your head. ("You" is understood before
"stand.")
Be careful with sentences that begin with "there"
plus a form of the verb "to be." In such sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals that the true subject will
soon follow.
There were three stray kittens cowering
under our porch steps this morning.
If you ask who? or what? before
the verb ("were cowering"), the answer is "three stray kittens," the correct subject.
Simple Subject and Simple Predicate
Every subject is built around one noun or pronoun
(or more) that, when stripped of all the words that modify it, is known as the simple subject. Consider the following
example:
Ex: A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy
his hunger.
The subject is built around the noun "piece,"
with the other words of the subject -- "a" and "of pepperoni pizza" -- modifying the noun. "Piece" is the simple subject.
Likewise, a predicate has at its center a simple
predicate, which is always the verb or verbs that link up with the subject. In the example we just considered, the simple
predicate is "would satisfy" -- in other words, the verb of the sentence.
A sentence may have a compound subject
-- a simple subject consisting of more than one noun or pronoun -- as in these examples:
Ex: Team pennants, rock posters
and family photographs covered the boy's bedroom walls.
Her uncle and she walked slowly
through the Inuit art gallery and admired the powerful sculptures exhibited there.
The second sentence above features a compound
predicate, a predicate that includes more than one verb pertaining to the same subject (in this case, "walked" and "admired").
Forms of the Subject:
The complete subject often
consists of a group of words:
Ex: The stately ship
dropped her anchor.
The noun round which the
other words are grouped is called the subject word, in this sentence ship. The subject word is always in the nominative
case.
The pronominal subject is often used in questions in connection with a noun subject, so that there is a
double expression of the subject:
Ex: Your friends, what will they say?
Ex:
a. A noun:
The sun is rising.
b. A pronoun:
He is writing.
c. An Infinitive or Gerund:
To read good books improves the mind.
Reading good books improves the mind.
d. An Adjective:
No good will comes of it.
Rich and poor rejoiced.
e. Another Part of Speech:
The ups and downs of life.
f. A Group of Words:
Early to bed, early
to rise makes man healthy, wealthy and wise.
g. A Whole Clause:
Whoever knows him well respects him.
Use of the Pronominal Subjects:
Attention is here called to a few important points:
I. Situation “It” as Subject:
“It” is much used as subject to point to something definite which is more or less clearly defined
by the situation.
Ex: It is John. (Words spoken up on
hearing foot steps in the hall).
It
(the distance) is ten miles to the nearest town.
II. Impersonal “It” and “ There”
We now say “It” rained yesterday,” but originally there was no “it” here,
no subject at all, for reference was made to an activity without any desire to bring it into relation to a subject the force
of such sentences has not changed, for the “it” here has no meaning. It has been inserted to conform the sentence
in a mere formal way to the usual type of sentence to subject and predicate. In spite of the “it” the verb has
no real subject, indeed we still as in earlier times desire in such sentences merely to call attention to an activity or state
in and of itself.
Ex: it is snowing. It is cold.
It is winter.
The old type of sentence without “it” survives in archaic “ methinks” literally.
Ex: There is a thinking going on to me. (where me is a dative of reference)
Instead of a predicate verb here we often employ a predicate noun, as being more concrete, introducing
the sentence with “there” instead of “it”
Ex: “ It frosted heavily last night,” or “ There was a heavy frost last night.”
III. Anticipatory “It” and “There”
When we desire to emphasize a subject, we often withhold it for a time, causing the feeling of suspense.
Anticipatory (it), or in the case of a noun subject also (there), serves as a provisional subject, pointing forward to the
real subject.
Ex: There is once lived an interesting old man. It
is to exert yourself.
Anticipatory (it) is also often employed when the subject leaves the first position so that a predicate
noun, pronoun, adjective, or adverb may be brought near the beginning of the sentence for emphasis, and a subject denoting
a lifeless thing.
Ex: It is needed beautiful, this view of the mountain.
IV. Pronouns Used as General or Indefinite Subject:
These are: one, you, they, and we.
Ex: One doesn’t like to be snubbed.
V. Editorial “ we,”
This form is sometimes used by a speaker or writer to avoid the egotism of “I”. In editorial
(we) often has associative force, the writher speaking for the whole staff; hence it is here a real plural.
Ex: We would first speak of the Puritans.
VI. Plural of Majesty:
“We” is often used instead of (I) by kings, especially as a formal term in official decrees.
VII. “We” = “You”
We
is often used with the force of you:
Ex: Are we down- hearted today? Often sarcastically: How touchy
we are?
Omission of Subject:
The subject is omitted:
a. As a Rule in Imperative Sentences:
Ex: Hand me that book.
b. In the First Person in a few Set Expressions:
Ex: [I] Thank you.
c. When subject is suggested by the situation. Accustomed, as we are to feel that every sentence must have
a subject, we might understand here a situation (it) or some other pronoun as subject, but in reality in natural speech we
simply trust to the situation to make our thought clear.
Ex: He will do it as soon as possible.
He bought more than was necessary.
(As regards wheat, prices are rising.)
UNIT
THREE
Forms of the Predicate:
The predicate can be:
a. A Finite Verb of Complete Predication:
A finite verb that has full verbal meaning, predicating something, hence quite distinct from the copulas
described in B bellow, which have little more than linking force.
Ex: simplicity attracts. Riches vanish. He frequently tells us interesting stories.
In the last example the verb often has modifiers. The verb with all its modifiers constitutes the complete
predicate.
The verb is not always a simple word as in the preceding examples but is often made of an auxiliary and
another verb- form, both together usually called the verb- phrase.
Ex: I have just finished my work.
In our colloquial speech there is a marked tendency to clothe the chief idea of the predicate in the form
of a noun instead of a verb of complete predication.
Ex:
After dinner we had a quiet smoke. “Instead
of” we smoked
quietly.
I got a good shaking up.
“Instead of” I was shaking up thoroughly.
1. Suppression of the Verb.
The verb or some part of the verb phrase often becomes an unimportant element in a sentence and on account
of the over towering importance of some other part of the complete predicate is so little felt that it may be suppressed.
Ex:
[Sit] Down in front! Have you
done it? “Of course, I have”
[done it].
Let
me [get] off at Jackson Street.
Murder will [come] out.
2. Use of “Do” to Avoid the Repetition of the Verb:
This is a convenient device.
Ex: He has never acted, as he should have done.
He behaves better than you do.
A stressed “do” form is used in questions, declarative statements, and commands wherever there
is a desire to emphasize the idea of actuality, the truthfulness of a claim, realization or a desire of realization.
Ex:
Does
he believe it? Did he see it? I didn’t
tell him? Do finish your
work.
An unstressed “do” is used in commands, questions, and in declarative sentences with inverted
word order.
Ex: Do finish your work.
Does he believe it?
A “do” form is used in the negative form of questions, declarative statements, and commands
when simple “not” is the negative.
Ex: Doesn’t he live here?
3. Position of the Verb
In declarative sentences, the verb of complete predication normally follows the subject.
An emphatic adverb or object may stand in the important first place, the personal part of the verb in the
second place, and the subject in the third place
Ex: Seven times did this intrepid general repeat his attacks.
This word order has become fixed in all questions in which there is an interrogative adverb or object.
Ex: When did he come?
In question expecting yes or no for an answer and in imperative sentences, the personal part of the verb
stands in the first place.
Ex: Did you see him?
A Verb of Incomplete Predication + Complement
The predicate may be also a finite form of a verb of incomplete
predication in connection with a predicate complement, that is a predicate noun, adjective, participle, etc., the verb assuming
in a mere formal way the function of predication, the complement serving as the real predicate.
Ex: He is a coward.
Shakespeare was a dramatist.
To err is human.
A verb of incomplete predication is called a copulas or a linking verb, a verb which of itself has little
meaning, merely linking the real predicate to the subject. The following are the most common of these linking verbs:
Appear, become, come, fall, feel, get, go, grow, happen, keep, leave off, lie, look, loom, prove, rank,
remain, rest, run, seem, sit, smell, sound, stand, stay, taste, turn, turn out,
Ex: He fell (full verb) as
a brave soldier at the front.
He
fell (linking verb = became) heir to a larger estate.
a. Appositional Type of Sentence:
Originally there was no linking verb between the subject and the predicate adjective, noun, or adverb.
In primitive expression it was considered sufficient to place the predicate adjective, noun, or adverb alongside of the subject,
either before or after, the predicate word lying next the subject like an appositive explaining it, predicating something
of it.
Ex:
He
called me a liar.
He thought me crazy.
I found him upstairs.
b. Position of Linking Verbs:
In declarative sentences linking verbs normally follow the subject, but for the sake of emphasis an emphatic
predicate noun or adjective or an emphatic object takes the first place, followed usually by the subject and the linking verb.
Ex:
Cantankerous
chap Roger always was. Lucky
it is that we know her name.
However the subject is emphatic, it is often withheld for a time to call attention to it. It then stands
after the verb.
Ex: “You have acted selfishly,” was her cold retort.
A Predicate Appositive:
The predicate may be also a verb of complete predication in connection with a predicate complement that
is a predicate noun, adjective, participle, and prepositional phrase, here called a predicate appositive.
Ex:
He was born a (or as a) child of poor parents; he died the (or as the) richest man in the state.
He came home sick.
She asked him in tears to come again.
1. Abridged Adverbial Clause with form of Participle, Gerund, or infinitive:
The predicate appositive often not only adds a remark about the subject, but also has the force of an adverbial
clause, thus sustaining relation to both the subject and the principle verb.
Ex: Being sick (= as
I was sick), I stayed at home.
He was drowned while bathing in the river.
To have finished my work I went to bed.
2. A Predicate Appositive after a Predicate Noun or Pronoun or Adjective:
The predicate appositive is used not only after verb of complete predication but also after a predicate
noun, pronoun, or adjective.
Ex:
He is a good neighbor, always ready to lend a helping hand and do a good turn.
She was like a bird, full of joy and music.
3. As –Phrase or As- Clause with Adverbial Force:
The As –Phrase or As- Clause may often according to the context be construed as indicating cause,
manner, extent, degree, or purpose.
Ex: He settled in Boston as a place of culture. (Cause).
They
employed him as chauffeur (manner).
It
was (as) long as my arm (extent).
He
was (as) strong as a horse (degree).
I scattered salt hay over my strawberry plants as a protection against winter (purpose).
Predicate Complement:
The predicate complement may be:
a. Predicate Noun:
In nominative after verbs of incomplete predication:
After the linking verbs:
Ex: Socrates was the son of sculptor.
After the passive forms of the transitive:
Ex: “They made him a general”: He was made a general.
The predicate nominative is often introduced by “as” now a very common form of the predicate
complement and the regular form after the passive of the new prepositional compounds.
Ex: He was considered our, or as our, most trustworthy man.
Instead of introducing the predicate complement by “as”
Ex: He was taken for his brother.
After a linking verbs containing the idea of growth, development, or change:
Ex: He became the president of the company.
Predicate Genitive: a predicate genitive is found after certain linking verbs to indicate characteristic,
measurement, origin, possession, material- usually the of –genitive, but quite commonly the s- genitive to indicate
possession.
Ex: The matter is of considerable
importance.
I
don’t want what is John’s or any body else’s.
b. Predicate Adjective and Participle:
The predicate complement may be an adjective or participle.
Ex: He is poor. (Adjective)
he seems contented. (Participle)
Predicate noun with the force of adjective.
Ex: He was fool (= foolish) enough to marry her.
c. Predicate Pronoun and Adverb “So”:
The predicate complement may be a pronoun.
Ex: It was he.
We
all desire to be free, but in this world, constituted as it is, we shall never be that.
Where the reference is to the idea contained in some preceding statement or word, we often use as a predicate
pronoun the demonstrative that, as in the last example, but the personal pronoun it and the verb so are
often used with similar force.
Ex: “I don’t like my teacher,”- “ Why [is that] so?”
d. Predicate Infinitive:
There are three classes of infinitives here:
I.
Normal prepositional form, which is used after a linking verb.
Ex: To be good is to be happy.
He seems to have ability.
After the passive form of many verbs:
Ex: He was found to be sleeping (fact), or He was found sleeping (with descriptive force)
II.
Modal form:
After the linking verbs be, remain, fall, and seem, the infinitive often assumes a peculiar
modal force in the predicate, expressing the possibility, fitness, or necessity of an action.
Ex:
An account of the event is to (= can) be found in the evening paper
Such women are to (= ought to) be admired.
I am to (= must) become a burden to you all
III.
Predicate Infinitive to express purpose:
After the linking verb “be” the “to- infinitive” is sometimes used as a predicate
appositive to express purpose.
Ex: I have been down town to buy a new hat.
E. Predicate Gerund:
The gerund is often used as a predicate complement, usually with the same force as the prepositional infinitive.
Ex: To build on any other foundation (than religion) is building upon sand (or to build upon sand).
F. Predicate Adverb and Prepositional Phrase:
An adverb or a prepositional phrase is often used as a predicate complement.
Ex: My day’s work is over.
He is in good condition.
UNIT
FOUR
Agreement Between Subject and
Predicate
You have heard
the basic rule that a verb agrees with its subject. That is a singular subject needs a singular verb and a plural subject
needs a plural verb.
The predicate agrees with the subject in number and, where it is possible, in person, gender, and case.
Rules
for agreement of verbs with subject.
A. Number:
Rule.1. Use a singular verb with a
singular subject, like is, has, was, does and a main verb taking (s) or (es) at the end.
Ex:
The tiniest hair casts a shadow.
Rule.2. Use a plural verb with a plural
subject, like are, have, were, do and a main verb taking no (s) or (es) at the end.
Ex:
These
cats are white.
Those men do well.
They
have green books.
Rule.3. Make the verb in a question agrees
with its subject. To be sure turn the question in to a statement.
Ex: Has he a book?
Is she a telephone operator?
Rule.4. Use a plural verb with compound
subjects joined by, and.
Ex:
Egg and butter are selling here.
The girls and their mother have gone for shopping.
Rule.5. For the subjects joined by either-or
and neither-nor, not only- but also, partly—partly the verb is agree with the one next to it.
a. Use a plural verb if both subjects are plural.
Ex: Neither the tables nor the chairs are new.
b. Use a singular verb if both subjects are singular.
Ex: Tea or coffee is his usual drink.
Not only John but also Bob is criminal.
Rule.6.A plural subject
may tell the idea of oneness or make one thing a singular should accept and a singular verb is used even that they joined
by (and).
Ex:
Bread
and cheese is my usual breakfast.
The orator and statement is dead.
Bread
and cream is his only food.
Every boy and girl was ready.
Rule.7. Plural subjects
are joined with (and) and preceded by article (the) takes a plural verb.
Ex: The black and the white cats are there.
Rule.8. Collective nouns denoting part or number takes a singular verb according as the idea of oneness.
Ex:
The senior class requests (as a unit) the pleasure of
your company
The senior class is unable to agree upon a president.
Rule. 9. Nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning, such as gallows, news, mumps, usually take
a verb in the singular.
Ex: this sad news was brought to him
at once.
Rule. 10. If the subject of the sentence is the name of a book, drama, newspaper, country or in general any title
or proper name, the verb is usually in the singular.
Ex: The times reports.
Rule. 11. Where there are an affirmative and a negative subject, the verb agrees with the affirmative.
Ex: Virtue, not rolling suns, the mind matures
(Young, Night Thoughts).
B. Person:
Rule. 12. When two or more subjects of different persons are in apposition, the verb agrees with the first one.
Ex: I, your mater, command you.
C. Gender:
Rule.13. The predicate complement agrees with the subject in gender where it has special forms to denote sex.
Ex: She is a countess.
D. Case:
Rule.14. The predicate complement agrees with its subject in case.
Ex:
It (subject nominative) is he (predicate nominative).
They supposed us
(subject accusative) to be them (predicate accusative).
Subordinate
Elements of a Sentence
The subordinate elements of a sentence are
called modifiers. They are divided into the following general classes:
1. Adjective
modifiers, which modify a noun or a pronoun.
2. Objective
and adverbial modifiers, which modify a verb.
A. Attributive Adjectives and Participles:
Attributive
adjectives and participles fall into two classes- the adherent adjective or participle, which stands before the governing
noun, and the appositive adjective or participle, which stands after it.
Ex:
(adherent adjective) a kind man.
A man kind to everybody.
(Appositive adjective)
I. Attributive Genitive:
The
S- Genitive: The ending
of this genitive is now always written “’s” and is pronounced as a simple “s” except after sibilants
(s, ss, c, sh, tch, ch,
g, dg, x, z), where it
is pronounced “es”.
Ex:
John’s (with simple s)
Jones’s (with es)
The
genitive “’s” is added only in the case of nouns whose plurals are not formed by adding –s.
Ex:
men- men’s, mice’s
Wherever
the noun ends in the plural in –s or – es, the genitive takes no additional ending, but in the written
language an apostrophe is added to indicate the genitive relation.
Ex:
The Browns’ cottage
The
Of- Genitive:
This
is the usual form with nouns representing lifeless things, but is also much used with names of living beings.
Ex:
The leg of the table. The
author of the book.
The father of the boy.
The
Double Genitive:
The
simple “s” genitive cannot be used after the governing noun, for in talking it would be taken for a plural. As
it is often desirable to employ after the governing noun the “s” genitive with its lively conception of personality,
we place the genitive sign “of” before the simple “s” genitive, thus clearly marking it as a genitive.
Ex:
that fine suggestion of father’s
a picture of the king’s
The
Uninflected Genitive:
Originally
there was no inflected form to indicate the genitive relation. This was shown by the word –order, the genitive always
preceding the governing noun this usage survives in the genitive compounds.
Ex:
sun- rise (rising of the sun)
earth- quake the quaking of the earth.
II.
An Appositive as Modifier of a Noun:
A
noun, which explains or characterize another is placed alongside of it, and from its position is accordingly called an (i.e.
placed alongside of).
Ex:
Smith, the banker.
There
are two groups:
1.
Loose Appositive:
Where the appositive noun follows the governing noun in a rather loose connection with the force of an
explanatory relative clause, it agrees, if possible, with the governing noun in number and gender, but not always in case.
Ex:
The Smiths, the friends of my youth.
Mary, the belle of the village.
The
appositive friends and belle may here be regarded as agreeing with their governing word in number, gender, and
case.
2.
Pronouns as Appositives:
An
appositive pronoun in choice English usually agrees with its governing noun or pronoun in case.
Ex:
Mother, who should go, John or I? Mother, whom do you want,
John or me?
3.
Appositive to a Sentence or Clause:
An
appositive in the form of an explanatory remark often belongs to a whole sentence or clause.
Ex:
I, like many another, am apt to judge my fellow man in comparison with myself, a wrong and a foolish and a natural thing
to do.
At
my friend Smith’s
house, or at the house of my friend Smith.
III.
A Prepositional Phrase as Modifier of a Noun:
A
noun or pronoun may be modified by a prepositional phrase.
Ex:
joy over the victory, skill in hand work, care for the needy.
IV.
An Infinitive as Modifier of a Noun:
A
noun may be modified by a prepositional infinitive.
Ex:
He was the first man to come= who came It is a strong impulse to do it.
V.
An Adverb as Modifier of a Noun:
An
adverb often modifies a Noun or pronoun.
Ex:
(adherent adverb) the above remark
(appositive adverb) the tree yonder.
A
Clause as Modifier of a Noun:
A
Clause may modify a Noun.
Ex:
The thought that we shall help him gives him courage.
B.
Objective Modifiers
I.
Accusative Object:
As the accusative and dative have lost the correct forms, which they once had, we must now indicate the
accusative and the dative relations by the word- order.
If there is only one object, it is in most cases an accusative and stands in the position after the verb.
Ex:
John struck his dog.
If it becomes necessary to employ a dative object after the verb, we must usually employ the modern dative
form of with “to”, otherwise it would be construed as an accusative.
Ex:
Robin Hood robbed the rich to give to the poor.
II.
Dative Object:
The dative, like the accusative, represents a person or thing as an object, but differs from the accusative
in that it indicates that the activity results in some advantage or disadvantage to the person or thing affected.
Ex:
He yielded, bowed, submitted, surrendered, cringed, god down on his knees,
to me.
III.
Genitive Object:
In older English, the simple genitive was much used with verbs and adjectives as an object to indicate
the sphere in which the activity or quality played. The simple genitive is no longer employed here, but the modern of-
genitive not infrequently occurs.
Ex:
A man ever mindful of his duty. (i.e. in the sphere of his duty)
IV.
Prepositional Object:
The
prepositional object is the natural complement of many adjectives and intransitive verbs.
Ex:
He was angry at me, pleased with me, worried
about me.
He is shooting at a
mark.
He is striving for the
first place in his class.
V.
Double Object or Object with its Objective Predicate:
An accusative, dative, or prepositional object may not only each be used singly after a verb, but two objects
may be employed, one an accusative to denote the direct object of the verb and one a dative, accusative, objective predicate,
or prepositional object to express some additional limitation.
Ex:
My uncle gave me a gold watch. Suffering has taught me patience.
I was told that I should
do it.
I asked him his name.
VI.
Form of the Positive:
The
adverbial element itself may have the form of a word, prepositional phrase, or subordinate clause.
Ex:
He did it easily.
He did it with ease.
VII.
Comparison of Adverbs:
Adverbs
are compared much as adjectives added “er” in the comparative and “est” in the superlative.
Ex:
fast- faster – fastest ----He climbed higher.
A
few irregularities occur, corresponding closely to those found in adjectives:
Well
better
best
Ill, badly
worse
worst
Much
more
most
VIII.
Sentence Adverbs:
An adverbial element, i.e. a simple adverb, adverbial phrase, or complete sentence, often modifies the
statement as a whole rather than the verb or predicate complement alone.
Ex:
He apparently thinks so.
I frankly confess it.
I undoubted believe it
Independent Elements of a Sentence:
Independent elements are words, phrases, or clauses, which are not related grammatically to other parts
of the sentence, or stand all alone without having any grammatical relation to another word expressed or understood. As we
shall see bellow, however, these elements all play a useful part in the expression of our thought and feeling.
I.
Interjections:
The simplest interjections, such as Oh! (usually O when not followed by a punctuation mark),
Ouch!, Pooh!, belong to the oldest form of spoken language and represent the most primitive type of sentence.
Although they often used alone as independent sentences, they are often embodied in modern sentences without any grammatical
relations to the other words, but expressing here, as elsewhere, emotion of various kinds.
Ex:
O for breathing – space! Oh, what
a fool I ‘v been!!
II.
Direct Address:
The name of a person who is addressed is often inserted in a sentence without grammatical relations to
the other words, but serving the useful purpose of attracting the attention of the person addressed.
Ex:
John, I have brought something home for you.
III.
Absolute Nominative:
There
are two classes of nominatives, which go under this name:
a.
Absolute Nominative in Adverbial Clauses:
Ex:
Off we started, he remaining behind (= while
he remained behind).
He being absent (= since he was absent), nothing could be done.
b.
Absolute Nominative in Subject Clauses:
Ex:
Three such rascals hanged in one day is good work for society.
IV.
Absolute Participles:
Ex: In “ taking (= if one should take) all things into consideration, his lot
is a happy one” taking is a dangling participle, having no word that can serve as its subject. In such sentence
we feel no deficiency, for the reference is general and indefinite, so that we expect no definite mention of a subject. This
is the only place where dangling participle is common in literary language.
UNIT FIVE
Classes of Sentences
Sentences are divided according to their structure in to three classes – simple, compound, and complex.
A simple sentence contains but one independent proposition.
A compound sentence contains two or more independent propositions.
A complex sentence contains one independent proposition and one or more subordinate clauses.
The Simple Sentences:
A
simple sentence is formed in a rather uncomplicated way from the nucleus, noun phrase + verb phrase. A noun phrase that functions
as subject and the verb phrase that functions as predicate.
Ex:
The mouse sleeps.
The Compound Sentence:
Structure and Connective:
Putting one sentence after another to form a single longer sentence, or putting together two structures
of the same kind from two different sentences, is called conjoining. The compound sentence consists of different independent
propositions or members. These members may be two or more simple sentences, or one member may be a simple sentence and the
others complex sentences, or there may be any combination of simple and complex sentences.
These
members are usually connected or arranged in the following ways:
A.
Coordinating Conjunctions:
The
members are connected by coordinating conjunctions. The commonest are; and, or, but, for.
Ex:
john is in the garden working and Mary is sitting at the window reading.
Coordinating
Conjunctions also link together subordinate clauses of like rank.
Ex:
The judge said that the case was a difficult one and that he would reconsider
his decision.
B. Copulative:
Connecting two members and their meaning, the second member indicating an addition of equal importance,
or, on the other hand, an advance in time or space, or an intensification, often coming in pairs, then called correlatives:
and; and; both- and; as well as; not- nor; not- not (or nor); neither- nor; either- or; not only- but (or but also or but).
Ex:
He is not only a criminal but also convicted as a criminal by the court.
C.
Pronoun and Adverbs as Conjunctions:
The conjunction between the members may be made by placing at the beginning of the sentence a stressed
personal pronoun, possessive adjective, or demonstrative pronoun or adverb referring back to the preceding proposition.
Ex:
That was a good place to start out in life form.
There life has always been
an inspiration to me.
The Complex Sentence:
Classification by Form and Function. If a sentence is made up of a principle and subordinate statement,
each statement is called a clause- the principle and subordinate clause. Subordinate clauses are of different fullness of
form and are of different kinds, performing different functions.
Ex:
It
is stupid of you that you should say it. (full and abridged clause)
Subject
and Predicate Clauses:
Subject
Clause:
A conjunction that; after verbs of saying, telling, relating sometimes how
instead of that; lest after nouns expressing fear, sometimes still as in older English used instead of that.
Ex:
It is the best that he go or more commonly that he should go.
Predicate
Clause:
Connectives:
this clause is introduced by the indefinite relative pronouns, who and what, sometimes by why, as,
where, that.
Ex:
He was not who (not more common the man) he seemed to be,”
Adjective Clause
There
are two classes:
Attributive
Substantive Clause:
This
clause may be an appositive to a noun clause, with the force of an attributive appositive noun, or substantive.
Ex:
The hope that he may recover is faint.
Attributive
Adjective Clause:
This
clause has the force of an attributive adjective.
Ex:
Here is the book you lent me.
Objective Clauses
Dative
Clause:
The
dative clause performs the function of a noun, which is in the dative after a verb or adjective.
Ex:
He told the story to whoever would listen.
This is like what we saw yesterday.
Accusative
Clause After Verbs:
Conjunctions;
that, lest, sometimes still as in older English used after verbs.
Ex:
I know that he has come.
Accusative
Clause After prepositions:
Conjunction
that, the indefinite relative pronouns, adjectives and adverbs are used after the prepositions.
Ex:
I insist upon it that he should go.
He is worrying about what
we shall do next.
Adverbial Clauses
Adverbial
clauses are divided into classes corresponding to those of adverbial elements- clauses of place, time, manner, degree, cause,
condition and exception
Clause
of Place:
Conjunctions,
where, whereas.
Ex:
We live where the road crosses the river.
Clause
of Time:
Conjunctions:
as (or so) soon as, as (or so) long as, as often as,
Ex:
He came as soon as I heard of it.
Clause
of Manner:
Ex:
I interpret the telegram so, or in
this way.
He differed from his colleagues
in that he spent his spare time in reading.
Clause
of Degree:
There
are different classes:
Degree
classes of comparison:
Ex:
Quick as thought he seized the oars.
Degree
classes of modal result:
Ex:
He is so badly injured that he must die.
Clause
of Cause:
Conjunctions:
that, as, because, not that- but because,
Ex:
I am sorry that he is going.
As you are not ready,
we must go without you.
Clause
of Condition or Exception:
Conjunctions
of condition: if, on condition (that), if not, only that, unless, without.
Ex:
I will not go if it rains.
Conjunctions
in Clauses of exception: but or but that, except that,
Ex:
I would go only that I am engaged.
Clause
of Concession:
Conjunctions:
if, although.
Ex:
I don’t care if I do lose.
I don’t care though I lose.
Clause
of Purpose:
Conjunction: that, old but still often used, more commonly, however, now replaced by more expressive forms,
in order that (with the purpose that), so that, so.
Ex:
They
are climbing higher that (or so that, or in order that) they may get a
better view.
Let
us be silent- so we may hear the whisper of the captain.
Clause
of Means:
In
the principle preposition there is always a preposition.
Ex:
You
can recognize him by the fact (a formal anticipatory word pointing to the following clause) that he limps badly,
or in abridged form by his limping badly or by his bad limp.
Fourth Subject:
Traditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech: the verb, the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction,
and the interjection.
Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same
word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next. The next few examples show how a word's part of speech
can change from one sentence to the next, and following them is a series of sections on the individual parts of speech, followed
by an exercise.
Books
are made of ink, paper, and glue.
In this sentence, "books" is a noun, the subject of the
sentence.
Deborah
waits patiently while Bridget books the tickets.
Here "books" is a verb, and its subject is "Bridget."
We walk
down the street.
In this sentence, "walk" is a verb, and its subject is the
pronoun "we".
The mail
carrier stood on the walk.
In this example, "walk" is a noun, which is part of a prepositional
phrase describing where the mail carrier stood.
The town
decided to build a new jail.
Here "jail" is a noun, which is the object of the infinitive
phrase "to build."
The sheriff
told us that if we did not leave town immediately he would jail us.
Here "jail" is part of the compound verb "would jail."
They heard
high pitched cries in the middle of the night.
In this sentence, "cries" is a noun acting as the direct
object of the verb "heard."
The baby
cries all night long and all day long.
But here "cries" is a verb that describes the actions of
the subject of the sentence, the baby.
The next few sections explain each of the parts of speech
in detail. When you have finished, you might want to test yourself by trying the exercise.
The details
- What is a noun?
- What is a pronoun?
- What is an adjective/
- What is a verb?
- What is an adverb?
- What is a preposition?
- What is a conjunction/
- What is an interjection?
What Is A Noun?
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually
the first words which small children learn. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns:
1.
Late last year our neighbors bought a goat.
2.
Portia White was an opera singer.
3.
The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.
4.
According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria
was destroyed in 48 B.C.
5.
Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.
A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject
complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.
There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalize some nouns, such as "Canada" or "Louise," and do not capitalize others, such as
"badger" or "tree" (unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In fact, grammarians have developed a whole series
of noun types, including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable noun (also
called the count noun), the non-countable noun (also called the mass noun), and the collective noun. You should note that
a noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable
or collective.
If you are interested in the details of these different types, you can read about them in
the following sections.
You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing.
The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organizations, religions, their holy texts and
their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun
In each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted:
1.
The Maroons were transported from Jamaica
and forced to build the fortifications in Halifax.
2.
Many people dread Monday mornings.
3.
Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.
4.
Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.
5.
Last year, I had a Baptist, a Buddhist, and a Gardnerian Witch as roommates.
A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense -- usually, you should write
it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.
In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted:
1.
According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.
2.
All the gardens in the neighborhood were invaded by beetles this summer.
3. I don't understand why some people insist on having six different kinds of mustard in their cupboards.
4.
The road crew was startled by the sight of three large moose crossing the
road.
5.
Many child-care workers are underpaid.
Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the following examples:
1.
The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing the large and sudden increase
in their rent.
2.
The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less expensive than meals in ordinary
restaurants.
3.
Many witches refer to the Renaissance as the Burning Times.
4.
The Diary of Anne Frank is often a child's first introduction to the history of the Holocaust.
A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses:
touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of an abstract noun.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:
1.
The judge handed the files to the clerk.
2.
Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.
3.
The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it
had new shingles.
4.
As the car drove past the park, the thump of a disco tune overwhelmed
the string quartet's rendition of a minuet.
5.
The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board.
An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical
senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:
- Buying
the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.
- Tillie
is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.
- Justice
often seems to slip out of our grasp.
- Some
scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically.
5. Collective
Nouns
A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the individual members
of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognize collective
nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the
opposite of a countable noun.
Ex: Navy, club, band, class, army, audience,
people, family, crowd, cattle, flock.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective noun:
· The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.
The collective noun "geese" takes the singular verb "spends."
· The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.
In this example the collective noun "jury" is the subject of the singular compound verb "is
dining."
· The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.
Here the collective noun "committee" takes a singular verb, "meets."
· The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.
In this sentence the word "class" is a collective noun and takes the singular compound verb
"was startled".
6. Compound Nouns
A compound noun is made up of two or more
words.
Ex: flight attendant, father-in-law, space
man, travel agent.
- A
flight attendant is listening to the passengers’ requests.
- The
space man has been killed.
Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher," can refer to men or women. Once, many English
nouns would change form depending on their gender -- for example, a man was called an "author" while a woman was called an
"authoress" -- but this use of gender-specific nouns is very rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational categories,
as in the following sentences.
1.
David Garrick was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.
2.
Sarah Siddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the 1780s.
3.
The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn't decide whether he was advertising for
a "waiter" or a "waitress"
Living beings are either male or female sex, gender
means kind or sort. Here we have four kinds of noun gender, they are as following.
A. Masculine Gender
A noun that denotes a male animal is a masculine
gender.
Ex: father, brother, doctor, uncle,
sir, husband, son, cock, lion, sun, boy, man,
B. Feminine
Gender
A
noun that denotes a female animal is a feminine gender.
Ex: woman, girl, nature, cow, moon, cat, miss,
hen, spring.
Is a term sometimes applied to nouns that may be either masculine or feminine. Ex: reader, worker, baby, cousin, child, person, friend, infant,
guest, owner
D.
Neuter Gender
A noun denotes things without life.
Ex: box, desk, book, pen, seat, chalk,
house, fan, dish, car, wood, mirror, street
Ways of forming the feminine of nouns.
1. By using an entirely different words as:
Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
Father
mother
brother
sister
king
queen
man
woman husband
wife
sun
moon uncle
aunt
lion
cat
2. By adding a suffix (ess) as:
Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
Poet
poetess
author
authoress waiter
waitress
prince
princess hunter
huntress
actor
actress
3. By placing a word before or after:
Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
Bull calf
cow calf
grand father
grandmother he bear
she bear
man servant
maid servant
Noun
Plurals
Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding "-s" or as illustrated in the following
pairs of sentences:
1.
When Matthew was small he rarely told the truth if he thought he was going to be punished.
2.
Many people do not believe that truths are self-evident.
Singular
plural
Singular
plural
Shop
shops
spoon
spoons teapot teapots
desk
desks
car
cars
student
students
Some of the nouns end in the singular form with the sounds
s, sh, ss, x, and (o) to make them plural we add (es) to the end.
1 .As they walked through the silent house. They
were startled by an unexpected echo.
2 . I like to shout into the quarry and listen to the echoes that returned.
3. He tripped over a box left carelessly in the hallway.
4. Since we are moving, we will need many boxes.
Singular
plural
Singular plural Class
classes
potato
potatoes box
boxes
match
matches brush
brushes
bus
buses
There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the last letter before adding "s".
Some words ending in "f" form the plural by deleting "f" and adding "ves," as in the following pairs of sentences:
1.
The harbor at Marble Mountain has one wharf.
2.
There are several wharves in Halifax
Harbor.
Singular
plural
Singular
plural
Shelf
shelves
thief
thieves
knife
knives
leaf
leaves
life
lives
wolf
wolves
Other nouns form the plural irregularly. If English is your first language, you probably know
most of these already: when in doubt, consult a good dictionary.
The middle vowel is changing.
1. The children circled around the headmaster and shouted, "Are you a mouse or a man?"
2. The audience was shocked when all five men admitted that they were afraid of mice.
Singular
plural
Singular
plural
Foot
feet
man
men
goose
geese
woman
women mouse
mice
tooth
teeth
Nouns ending in "y" form the plural by deleting the "y" and adding "ies,"
1.
Warsaw is their favorite city
because it reminds them of their courtship.
2. The vacation my grandparents won includes trips
to twelve European cities.
Singular
plural
Singular plural
Army
armies
lady
ladies baby
babies
party
parties city
cities
story
stories
If the singular form ends in (y) and preceded by a vowels we just add (s) at the end.
Singular plural
Singular
plural
Key
keys
boy
boys
way
ways
toy
toys
There are few nouns plural forms are adding (en) to the end.
Singular
plural
Singular
plural
Ox oxen
child
children
Cases of Noun
The form of a noun or pronoun that shows its relation to the rest of the sentences is called case.
The cases are Nominative, Objective, Dative and Possessive. Nouns change their form only in one case, the possessive case.
A. Nominative
Case:
A noun
is in the nominative case when it is the subject of a verb. That is also called the nominative or subjective case. The nominative
generally comes before the verb. To find the subject of the verb, first find the verb. Then ask the question who or what.
Ex: Kate
caught a large trout. (Who caught?) Kate. (The subject.)
Has Sam gone home? (Who has gone?) Sam. (The subject.)
One row of the tree has died. (What was?)(Row. The subject).
A verb may have a compound subject. That is more than one word.
Ex: Bob
and Lisa collect stamps. (Who collect?) (Bob and Lisa. The subject)
A noun is in the nominative case when it is used as a predicate nominative.
Ex: the
girl is Liz. (Predicate noun)
A predicate nominative is so called because it completes the predicate verb and names the same person
or thing as the subject, and completes linking verbs or may be compound.
Ex: The
tennis players were Bob, Mike, Liz and John.
A noun is in the nominative case when it is in apposition with another noun in the nominative case.
Ex: That
man is Carl, our agent. (Apposition with predicate noun)
A noun is in the nominative case when it is used in direct address. This construction is called a nominative
of address, or vocative. They set off by commas.
Ex: Min,
you must play harder tonight.
B. Objective Case:
A noun
is in the objective (accusative) case when it is the object of a verb (direct object).
Ex: father
took Bob and Liz.
Mike threw the ball to the first base.
In the sentences above, the verb (threw and took) are transitive verbs. They show action passing from
a doer to a receiver, a direct object answers the questions (whom or what was something done by the subject?
A noun is in the objective case when, it is the object of a preposition.
Ex: Mike
is painting a cabinet for his boss.
C. Dative Case:
A noun is in the objective case
when it is the indirect object of a verb and we call the Dative case.
Ex:
Father
bought my brother a bike.
Give Liz and Mike a chance.
In the first sentence bought is the verb. Who bought? Father the subject, father bought what? A bike
the direct object, to or for whom did he buy a bike? For brother, the indirect object. (The preposition to, for, or of can
always be inserted before an indirect object.)
In the second sentence the verb (give), the subject, you, the direct object, chance, the indirect object,
Liz and Mike.
A noun is the objective case when it is the subject or object of an infinitive.
Ex: Don
asked the girl to come. (Subject of to come)
A noun is the objective case when it is the objective complement. An object complement noun follows
the direct object and renames it.
Ex: They
called the boy to lock.
A noun is the objective case when it is in apposition with another noun in the objective case.
Ex: They
made Tom, a new agent.
D. Possessive Case of Nouns:
In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is closely
related to something else. Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination of an apostrophe and the letter "s."
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does not end in "s" by adding an
apostrophe and "s," as in the following sentences:
1.
The red suitcase is Cassandra's.
2.
The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister's.
3.
The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant's screams.
4.
The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in "s" by adding an apostrophe
alone or by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following examples:
1.
The bus's seats are very uncomfortable.
2.
The bus' seats are very uncomfortable.
3.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.
4.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus' eggs.
5.
Felicia Hemans's poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.
6.
Felicia Hemans' poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.
You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe
and a "s," as in the following examples:
1.
The children's mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch.
2.
The sheep's pen was mucked out every day.
3.
Since we have a complex appeal process, a jury's verdict is not always final.
4.
The men's hockey team will be play as soon as the women's team is finished.
5.
The hunter followed the moose's trail all morning but lost it in the afternoon.
You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in "s" by adding
an apostrophe:
1.
The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies'
squalling.
2.
The janitors' room is downstairs and to the left.
3.
My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.
4.
The archivist quickly finished repairing the diaries' bindings.
5.
Religion is usually the subject of the roommates' many late night debates.
When you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the possessive case
frequently functions as an adjective modifying another noun:
Ex: The miner's face was covered
in coal dust.
Here the possessive noun "miner's" is used to modify the noun "face" and together with the
article "the," they make up the noun phrase that is the sentence's subject.
Ex: The concert was interrupted by the
dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.
In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive noun "dogs"' modifies
"barking", "ducks"' modifies "quacking," and "babies"' modifies "squalling."
Ex: The film crew accidentally crushed
the platypus's eggs.
In this example the possessive noun "platypus's" modifies the noun "eggs" and the noun phrase
"the platypus's eggs" is the direct object of the verb "crushed."
Ex: My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.
In this sentence the possessive noun "squirrels"' is used to modify the noun "nest" and the
noun phrase "the squirrels' nest" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to locate."
Making Noun Subject with Verbs Agree
Rules for agreement of verbs with noun subject.
Rule.1. use a singular verb with a singular subject,
like is, has, was, does and a main verb taking (s) or (es) at the end.
Ex:
The
boy is an operator at the telephone company.
Ted doesn’t like to cook.
She
speaks Spanish very well.
Rule.2.
Use a plural verb with
a plural subject, like are, have, were, do and a main verb taking no (s) or (es) at the end.
Ex:
These cats are white.
Those
men do well.
They have green books.
Rule.3.
Make the verb in a question
agree with its subject. To be sure turn the question in to a statement.
Ex: Has he a book? Is she a telephone operator?
Rule.4.
Use a plural verb with
compound subjects joined by, and.
Ex:
Egg
and butter are selling here.
The girls and their mother have gone for shopping.
Rule.5. For subjects joined by or and nor do this.
a. Use a plural verb if both subjects are plural.
Ex: Neither the tables nor the chairs are new.
b. Use a singular verb if both subjects are singular.
Ex: Tea or coffee is his usual drink.
Rule.6.A plural subject may tell one idea or make
one thing a singular should accept and a singular verb is used even that they joined by (and).
Ex:
Bread and cheese is my usual breakfast. The
orator and statement is dead.
Bread and cream is his only food.
Every
boy and girl was ready.
Rule.7.
Plural subjects are joined
with (and) and preceded by article (the) takes a plural verb.
Ex: the black and white cats are there.
Noun of Address
Often in talking with a person, you show your friendly feeling toward him by using his name or some
other identification, like wise you often use a person name or an identifying expression to make the person pay particular
attention to what you to say. In both cases you use a noun on nominative of address.
Ex:
Here are some stamps, Liz.
Sit
and listen to my advice, John.
A noun of address may give the modifiers.
Ex: Try this one, young man.
A noun of address is an independent element; that is not grammatically related to the rest of the sentence.
In other word, if you move a noun of address a complete sentence will remain. A noun of address may come at the beginning
of a sentence with in it or at the end.
Ex:
Sir, may I see you alone?
Here
is your receipt, Mrs. Aziz.
Here is your coat, Sir
A noun of address may set off from the rest of the sentence
by a comma or commas. A noun of address may be compound.
Ex: John and Tom wait here.
Countable
Nouns and Non-Countable Nouns
Countable
Nouns
A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you
can count. You can make a countable noun can be made plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable
nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns:
1.
We painted the table red and the chairs blue.
2.
Since he inherited his aunt's library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing
his books.
3.
Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.
4.
The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane.
5.
Over the course of twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just over eight hundred
babies.
A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun, which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could
(or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar
to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns:
Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.
The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural.
Oxygen is essential to human life.
Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather than the plural
verb "are."
We decided to sell the furniture
rather than take it with use when we moved.
You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural.
The furniture is heaped in the middle
of the room.
Since "furniture" is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, "is heaped."
The crew spread the gravel over the
roadbed.
You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural.
Gravel is more expensive than I thought.
Since "gravel" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form "is."
A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you"
to make your sentence less cumbersome and less repetitive.
Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the personal pronoun, the demonstrative
pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the intensive
pronoun.
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender
and case.
Subjective Personal Pronouns
A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she,"
"he," "it," "we," "you," "they."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a subjective personal
pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence:
1.
I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.
2.
You are surely the strangest child I have ever met.
3.
He stole the selkie's skin and forced her to live with him.
4.
When she was a young woman, she earned her living as a coal miner.
5.
After many years, they returned to their homeland.
6.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.
7.
It is on the counter.
8.
Are you the delegates from Malaga
watch?
An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or
infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you," and "them."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is an objective personal
pronoun:
Seamus stole the selkie's skin and forced
her to live with him.
The objective personal pronoun "her" is the direct object of the verb "forced" and the objective
personal pronoun "him" is the object of the preposition "with."
After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw it
into the garbage can.
The pronoun "it" is the direct object of the verb "threw".
The agitated assistant stood up and faced
the angry delegates and said, "Our leader will address you in five minutes."
In this sentence, the pronoun "you" is the direct object of the verb "address."
Deborah and Roberta will meet us
at the newest café in the market.
Here the objective personal pronoun "us" is the direct object of the compound verb "will meet."
Give the list to me.
Here the objective personal pronoun "me" is the object of the preposition "to".
I'm not sure that my contact will talk to
you.
Similarly in this example, the objective personal pronoun "you" is the object of the preposition
"to".
Christopher was surprised to see her
at the drag races.
Here the objective personal pronoun "her" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to see."
3.
Possessive Personal Pronouns
A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular
object or person. The possessive personal pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its," "ours," and "theirs." Note that possessive personal
pronouns are very similar to possessive adjectives like "my," "her," and "their."
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a possessive personal pronoun:
The smallest gift is mine.
Here the possessive pronoun "mine" functions as a subject complement.
This is yours.
Here too the possessive pronoun "yours" functions as a subject complement.
His is on the kitchen counter.
In this example, the possessive pronoun "his" acts as the subject of the sentence.
Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.
In this sentence, the possessive pronoun "theirs" is the subject of the sentence.
Ours is the green one on the corner.
Here too the possessive pronoun "ours" function as the subject of the sentence.
A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby
either in space or in time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or time.
The demonstrative pronouns are "this," "that," "these," and "those." "This" and "that" are
used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrase and "these" and "those" are used to refer to plural nouns and noun phrases.
Note that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives, though, obviously, you use them differently.
It is also important to note that "that" can also be used as a relative pronoun.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a demonstrative pronoun:
This must not continue.
Here "this" is used as the subject of the compound verb "must not continue."
This is puny; that is the
tree I want.
In this example "this" is used as subject and refers to something close to the speaker. The
demonstrative pronoun "that" is also a subject but refers to something farther away from the speaker.
Three customers wanted these.
Here "these" is the direct object of the verb "wanted".
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what" and
the compounds formed with the suffix "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever"). Note that either "which"
or "what" can also be used as an interrogative adjective, and that "who," "whom," or "which" can also be used as a relative
pronoun.
You will find "who," "whom," and occasionally "which" used to refer to people, and "which"
and "what" used to refer to things and to animals.
"Who" acts as the subject of a verb, while "whom" acts as the object of a verb, preposition,
or a verbal.
The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an interrogative pronoun:
Which wants to see the dentist first?
"Which" is the subject of the sentence.
Who wrote the novel Rockbound?
Similarly "who" is the subject of the sentence?
Whom do you think we should invite?
In this sentence, "whom" is the object of the verb "invite."
To whom do you wish to speak?
Here the interrogative pronoun "whom” is the object of the preposition "to."
Who will meet the delegates at the
train station?
In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun "who" is the subject of the compound verb "will
meet".
To whom did you give the paper?
In this example the interrogative pronoun "whom" is the object of the preposition "to."
What did she say?
Here the interrogative pronoun "what" is the direct object of the verb "say."
You can use a relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are
"who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also relative pronouns.
You can use the relative pronouns "who" and "whoever" to refer to the subject of a clause
or sentence, and "whom" and "whomever" to refer to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a relative pronoun.
You may invite whomever you like
to the party.
The relative pronoun "whoever" is the direct object of the compound verb "may invite".
The candidate who wins the greatest
popular vote is not always elected.
In this sentence, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb "wins" and introduces the
subordinate clause "who wins the greatest popular vote". This subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying "candidate."
In a time of crisis, the manager asks the
workers whom she believes to be the most efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual.
In this sentence "whom" is the direct object of the verb "believes" and introduces the subordinate
clause "whom she believes to be the most efficient". This subordinate clause modifies the noun "workers."
Whoever broke the window will have
to replace it.
Here "whoever" functions as the subject of the verb "broke".
The crate which was left in the corridor
has now been moved into the storage closet.
In this example "which" acts as the subject of the compound verb "was left" and introduces
the subordinate clause "which was left in the corridor." The subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying the noun "crate."
I will read whichever manuscript
arrives first.
Here "whichever" modifies the noun "manuscript" and introduces the subordinate clause "whichever
manuscript arrives first." The subordinate clause functions as the direct object of the compound verb "will read."
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun
conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.
The most common indefinite pronouns are "all," "another," "any," "anybody," "anyone," "anything,"
"each," "everybody," "everyone," "everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some," "somebody," and
"someone." Note that some indefinite pronouns can also be used as indefinite adjective.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns:
Many were invited to the lunch but
only twelve showed up.
Here "many" acts as the subject of the compound verb "were invited".
The office had been searched and everything
was thrown onto the floor.
In this example,” everything" acts as a subject of the compound verb "was thrown."
We donated everything we found in
the attic to the woman's shelter garage sale.
In this sentence, "everything" is the direct object of the verb "donated."
Although they looked everywhere for extra
copies of the magazine, they found none.
Here too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: "none" is the direct object
of "found."
Make sure you give everyone a copy
of the amended bylaws.
In this example, "everyone" is the indirect object of the verb "give" -- the direct object
is the noun phrase "a copy of the amended bylaws."
Give a registration package to each.
Here "each" is the object of the preposition "to."
You can use a reflexive pronoun to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence.
The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves,"
"yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of these can also act as an intensive pronoun.
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a reflexive pronoun:
Diabetics give themselves insulin
shots several times a day.
The Dean often does the photocopying herself
so that the secretaries can do more important work.
After the party, I asked myself why
I had faxed invitations to everyone in my office building.
Richard usually remembered to send a copy
of his e-mail to himself.
Although the landlord promised to paint
the apartment, we ended up doing it ourselves.
An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasize its antecedent. Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive
pronouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns:
I myself believe that aliens should
abduct my sister.
The Prime Minister himself said that
he would lower taxes.
They themselves promised to come
to the party even though they had a final exam at the same time.
9. Distributive Pronouns:
That refers to
a person or thing once at a time, such as each, either, neither. Verbs in these kinds of sentences are singular.
Ex: Each of the
boys gets a prize.
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective
usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:
1.
The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
2.
Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.
3.
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
4.
The coal mines are dark and dank.
5.
Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.
6.
A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.
7.
The back room was filed with large, yellow rain boots.
An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb.
In the sentence.
My husband knits intricately patterned
mittens.
For example, the adverb ``intricately'' modifies the adjective ``patterned.''
Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as adjectives. In the
sentence
Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds
of the radio hidden under her pillow.
For example, both highlighted adjectives are past participle.
Grammarians also consider articles (``the,'' ``a,'' ``an'') to be adjectives.
Descriptive adjective is used to describe a common or a proper noun. They are such as small, tall,
long, intelligent, high, loud or etc......
Ex:
We saw an English woman. (English is proper and modifies the noun woman.)
They bought an efficient car. (Efficient is common and modifies the noun car.)
2.
Limiting Adjectives
Limiting adjective tells or point out how many definitely or indefinitely. They are such as the, an,
a, the articles.
Ex: We need a car
I would like eat an apple.
The boy is happy.
3.
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective (``my,'' ``your,'' ``his,'' ``her,'' ``its,'' ``our,'' ``their'') is similar or identical to
a possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
I can't complete my assignment because
I don't have the textbook.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``my'' modifies ``assignment'' and the noun phrase
``my assignment'' functions as an object. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``mine'' is not used to modify a noun or noun
phrase.
What is your phone number?
Here the possessive adjective ``your'' is used to modify the noun phrase ``phone number'';
the entire noun phrase ``your phone number'' is a subject complement. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``yours'' is not
used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.
The bakery sold his favorite type
of bread.
In this example, the possessive adjective ``his'' modifies the noun phrase ``favorite type
of bread'' and the entire noun phrase ``his favorite type of bread'' is the direct object of the verb ``sold.''
After many years, she returned to her
homeland.
Here the possessive adjective ``her'' modifies the noun ``homeland'' and the noun phrase ``her
homeland'' is the object of the preposition ``to.'' Note also that the form ``hers'' is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
We have lost our way in this wood.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``our'' modifies ``way'' and the noun phrase ``our
way'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``have lost''. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``ours'' is not used
to modify nouns or noun phrases.
In many fairy tales, children are neglected
by their parents.
Here the possessive adjective ``their'' modifies ``parents'' and the noun phrase ``their parents''
is the object of the preposition ``by.'' Note that the possessive pronoun form ``theirs'' is not used to modify nouns or noun
phrases.
The cat chased its ball down the
stairs and into the backyard.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``its'' modifies ``ball'' and the noun phrase ``its
ball'' is the object of the verb ``chased.'' Note that ``its'' is the possessive adjective and ``it's'' is a contraction for
``it is.''
The demonstrative adjectives ``this,'' ``these,'' ``that,'' ``those,'' and ``what'' are identical to the demonstrative pronouns,
but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:
When the librarian tripped over that
cord, she dropped a pile of books.
In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective ``that'' modifies the noun ``cord'' and the
noun phrase ``that cord'' is the object of the preposition ``over.''
This apartment needs to be fumigated.
Here ``this'' modifies ``apartment'' and the noun phrase ``this apartment'' is the subject
of the sentence.
Even though my friend preferred those
plates, I bought these.
In the subordinate clause, ``those'' modifies ``plates'' and the noun phrase ``those plates''
is the object of the verb ``preferred.'' In the independent clause, ``these'' is the direct object of the verb ``bought.''
Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative pronoun is
similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between an interrogative adjective
and an interrogative pronoun.
A numeral adjective may be cardinal or ordinal numbers.
Cardinal
numbers are (one, two, three, four or etc…). they are used before nouns:
Ex: two eggs, one car, three girls
Ordinal numbers are (first, second, third, forth or etc…)
Ex: sixth row, first name, second class.
6.
Attributive Adjective
Attributive adjective precedes the word that they modify.
Ex: Three large trees grow on our lawn.
(Three and large are attributive adjectives)
7.
Predicative Adjective
A predicate adjective completes the meaning of linking verbs and describes its subject and is used
as a complement of a verb
Ex: Your idea is excellent.
He seems happy.
8.
Appositive Adjective
Appositive adjective follows the word that it modifies. And they are set off by commas
Ex: I saw a mother tired, upset and anxious.
9.
Degrees of Adjective
Adjective has three degrees. Positive, comparative and superlative. There are some rules to comparative
and superlative forms of adjective.
Adjectives Positive
Degree Comparative
Degree Superlative
Degree
One syllable small
small (er) (than)
(the) small (est) More
syllables beautiful
more (beautiful) (than) (the)
(most) beautiful
10.
Regular and Irregular Adjective
A regular adjective in comparative takes (er) and in superlative it takes (est) but irregular adjectives
in comparative and superlative degrees their form are changed as follows:
Positive Degree
Comparative Degree
Superlative Degree
Good
better (than)
(the) best bad
worse (than)
(the) worst much/ many
more (than)
(the) most
little
less (than)
(the) least
11.
Interrogative Adjectives
An interrogative adjective (``which'' or ``what'') is like an interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or
noun phrase rather than standing on its own (see also demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives):
Which plants should be watered twice
a week?
Like other adjectives, ``which'' can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. In this example,
``which'' modifies ``plants'' and the noun phrase ``which paints'' is the subject of the compound verb ``should be watered'':
What book are you reading?
In this sentence, ``what'' modifies ``book'' and the noun phrase ``what book'' is the direct
object of the compound verb ``are reading.''
An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase,
as in the following sentences:
Many people believe that corporations are
under-taxed.
The indefinite adjective ``many'' modifies the noun ``people'' and the noun phrase ``many
people'' is the subject of the sentence.
I will send you any mail that arrives after
you have moved to Sudbury.
The indefinite adjective ``any'' modifies the noun ``mail'' and the noun phrase ``any mail''
is the direct object of the compound verb ``will send.''
They found a few goldfish floating belly
up in the swan pound.
In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun ``goldfish'' and the noun phrase
is the direct object of the verb ``found'':
The title of Kelly's favorite game is ``All
dogs go to heaven.''
Here the indefinite pronoun ``all'' modifies ``dogs'' and the full title is a subject complement.
An adjective is used as an object complement and follows the direct object that it modifies.
Ex: this promotion should make you happy. (you is the object)
Prepositional phrase may be used as an adjective.
Ex: The door behind me is opened.
Infinitives and participles may be used as adjectives.
Ex: The car to drive is comfortable. (To drive is an infinitive and modifies the noun
car) The walking man is my uncle.
(Walking is a participle and modifies the noun man)
The Verb
The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence. A verb or compound verb asserts something about the subject of the sentence and express actions, events,
or states of being. The verb or compound verb is the critical element of the predicate of a sentence.
In each of the following sentences, the verb or compound verb is highlighted:
Dracula bites his victims on the
neck.
The verb "bites" describes the action Dracula takes.
In early October, Giselle will plant
twenty tulip bulbs.
Here the compound verb "will plant" describes an action that will take place in the future.
My first teacher was Miss Crawford,
but I remember the janitor Mr. Weatherbee more vividly.
In this sentence, the verb "was" (the simple past tense of "is") identifies a particular person
and the verb "remembered" describes a mental action.
Karl Creelman bicycled around in world in
1899, but his diaries and his bicycle were destroyed.
In this sentence, the compound verb "were destroyed" describes an action which took place
in the past.
Transitive Verb
A verb that denotes an action has a direct object or a verb that carries its action from a
subject to a direct object or passes over an action from a subject to an object is called transitive verb.
Ex: The boy kicks the ball.
In the above sentence the action denoted by verb (kick) passes over from the doer or subject
(boy) to direct object (ball). The verb (kick) is therefore called a transitive verb (transitive means passing over).
Most transitive verbs take single object, but transitive verbs as; give, ask, offer, promise
and tell take two objects after them, that one is an indirect object denotes the person to whom something is given, or for
whom something is done and a direct object which is usually the name of something.
Ex: He told me (indirect) a secrete (direct).
Father gave him a dollar.
Intransitive Verb
A verb that denotes an action, but doesn’t pass over to an object or even expresses
state or being is called an intransitive verb.
Ex:
He
runs a long distance. (Action)
The baby seems happy. (State)
There
is a flow in this diamond. (Being)
Most verbs can be used as both transitive and intransitive.
Ex: the ant fought wasp. (Transitive)
Some ants fight fluently. (Intransitive)
He
told me the truth. (Transitive)
He told gently. (Intransitive)
Some verbs like come, go fall, die, sleep, lie, denotes action which can’t be done to
anything. They can therefore never be used transitively.
Ex: He falls down.
She goes home.
He sleeps late.
Intransitive verbs are used as transitive when an intransitive verb is used as causative sense,
it becomes transitive.
Ex:
The
horse walks. (Intransitive)
He walks the horse. (Transitive)
The girl runs down the street. (Intransitive)
The girl runs a needle on to her hand. (Transitive)
Birds fly. (Intransitive)
The boy flies his kite. (Transitive)
Some intransitive verbs may become transitive by adding or having
a preposition.
Ex: All his friends laughed at him. (Transitive)
He will run through his fortune. (Transitive)
Verb of Incomplete Predication
Read the following sentences:
The baby sleeps.
The baby seems happy. The
verbs in both sentences are intransitive, but the verb in first sentence has a complete sense and the verb in the second sentence
does not have and require a word or a complement (happy) to make the sense complete. Such verb is called a verb of incomplete
predication. Verb of incomplete predication expresses the idea of being, becoming,
seeing, appearing and the complement is usually consist of a noun or an adjective.
Ex: Tim is a cat.
You look happy.
The sky grew dark.
Some transitive verbs require besides an object a complement to
complete their precision.
Ex: We made Kate a captain.
A linking verb connects a subject to a subject complement which identifies or describes the subject, as in
the following sentences:
The play is waiting for John.
In this sentence, the linking verb "is" links the noun phrase "the play" to the identifying
phrase "Waiting for, John” which is called a subject complement.
Some of us thought that the play was
very good.
In this sentence, the verb "was" links the subject complement "very good" to subject "the
play".
Others thought it became tedious
after the first fifteen minutes.
In this sentence, the linking verb "became" links the subject "it" to the subject complement
"tedious." The phrase "after the first fifteen minutes" functions as an adverb modifying the clause "it became tedious".
The cast appears disorganized and
confused; perhaps Beckett intended this.
Here "appears" is functioning as a linking verb that connects the subject "the cats" to its
subject complement "disorganized and confused".
The play seems absurd to me.
The subject "the play" is joined to its subject complement "absurd" by the linking verb "seems".
Linking verbs are either verbs of sensation ("feel," "look," "smell," "sound," "taste") or
verbs of existence ("act," "appear," "be," "become," "continue," "grow," "prove," "remain," "seem," "sit," "strand," "turn").
Many linking verbs (with the significant exception of "be") can also be used as transitive
or intransitive verbs. In the following pairs of sentences, the first sentence uses the highlighted verb as a linking verb
and the second uses the same verb as either a transitive or an intransitive verbs:
Linking
Griffin insists that the water in Winnipeg
tastes terrible.
In this sentence, the adjective "terrible" is a subject complement that describes a quality
of the water.
Transitive
I tasted the soup before adding more
salt.
Here the noun phrase "the soup" identifies what "I tasted." "The soup" is the direct object
of the verb "tasted."
Linking
My neighbor’s singing voice sounds
very squeaky despite several hours of daily practice.
In this example, the phrase "very squeaky" is a subject complement that describes or identities
the nature of the "singing voice."
Transitive
Upon the approach of the enemy troops, the
gate-keeper sounded his horn.
Here the verb "sounded" takes a direct object, the noun phrase "his horn."
Linking
Cynthia feels queasy whenever she
listens to banjo music.
In this sentence, the adjective "queasy" is a subject complement that describes Cynthia.
Transitive
The customer carefully feels the
fabric of the coat.
Here the noun phrase "the fabric of the coat" is the direct object of the verb "feels" and
identifies what the customer feels.
Agreement of the Verb with the Subject
The verb agrees with subject in number and person.
A. Two or more singular subjects connected by and usually
take a plural verb.
Ex: Liz and Tom are
at the exhibit. Fire and water don’t agree.
B. If two singular subjects refer to the same person or
thing the verb must be singular.
Ex: My friend and teacher of English has come. The black and white cat is here.
C. Whenever the two subjects proceed with articles the verb should be plural.
Ex: The black and
the white cat are here.
D. If two singular subjects together express one idea the
verb is singular.
Ex: Toast and butter is my favorite breakfast. The horse and the
carriage is at the door.
E. If the singular subjects are preceded by each or every
the verb is usually singular.
Ex: Every boy and girl was ready. Each of the
boys gets a prize.
F. Two or more singular subjects connected
by or, nor, either, or neither take a singular verb.
Ex: Neither food nor water was to be found.
May be Kate or Powel is efficient.
. Either he or I am mistaken. But
He and I are well.
G. A collective noun takes a singular verb when the collective is thought as whole.
Ex: The counsel has chosen its president. (Singular idea)
. . The
police are trying to arrest the thieves. (Plural)
Auxiliary
(Helping) Verbs
AUXILIARY
VERBS are verbs that help to form the tenses of other verbs. In "I am working", "am" is an auxiliary because it helps to form
the present tense in the sentence. In "I am busy" it is not an auxiliary. It is the main verb in the sentence and is followed
by an adjective, "busy" as a complement.
Helping verbs or auxiliary verbs such as
will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, should, would, used to, need are used in conjunction with main
verbs to express shades of time and mood. The combination of helping verbs with main verbs creates what are called verb
phrases or verb strings. In the following sentence, "will have been" are helping or auxiliary verbs and "studying"
is the main verb; the whole verb string is underlined:
There are 25 auxiliaries (friend of not) such as is, am, are ,was, were, be, do, does, did, have,
has, had, will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, should, would, used to, need, dare to they are divided in to two parts (modal and semi)
Semi are used as main and helping ; is, am, are ,was, were, be, do, does, did, have, has, had,
Ex: I am a doctor. (Main) I
am waiting for the bus. (Auxiliary)
Modals are used as helping and don’t have any other usage; will, shall, may, might, can, could,
must, ought to, should, would, used to, need, dare to
Ex: He will never pay the money. (Auxiliary) no main verb
What is an Adverb?
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates
manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much".
While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly" suffix, most of them must
be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an
adverb can be found in various places within the sentence.
In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:
The seamstress quickly made the mourning
clothes.
In this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "made" and indicates in what manner
(or how fast) the clothing was constructed.
The midwives waited patiently through
a long labor.
Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb "waited" and describes
the manner in which the midwives waited.
The boldly-spoken words would return
to haunt the rebel.
In this sentence the adverb "boldly" modifies the adjective "spoken."
We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.
Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously."
Unfortunately, the bank closed at
three today.
In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire sentence.
You can use a conjunctive adverb to join two clauses together. Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs are "also," "consequently,"
"finally," "furthermore," "hence," "however," "incidentally," "indeed," "instead," "likewise," "meanwhile," "nevertheless,"
"next," "nonetheless," "otherwise," "still," "then," "therefore," and "thus." A conjunctive adverb is not strong
enough to join two independent clauses without the aid of a semicolon.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are conjunctive adverbs:
· The government has cut university budgets; consequently, class sizes have been increased.
· He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for; therefore, he decided to make something else.
· The report recommended several changes to the ways the corporation accounted for donations; furthermore,
it suggested that a new auditor be appointed immediately.
· The crowd waited patiently for three hours; finally, the doors to the stadium were opened.
· Batman and Robin fruitlessly searched the building; indeed, the Joker had escaped through a secret door
in the basement.
Interrogative
Adverb
Interrogative Adverb are used to ask a question,
they are how, where, when and why used at the beginning of the sentences for time, place, reason and quality
Ex: When did you come? Where is the pen?
Why did you do this action?
Relative Adverb
Relative Adverb is used to relate or connect two
clauses (main and subordinate). They are when, while and where.
When is used to show the time and connects two
clauses of simple past.
Ex: When I was in eighth class, he was our teacher.
While is used to show the time and connects two
clauses of simple past and past continuous.
Ex: While she was waiting for the bus, a man stole
her purse.
Where is used to show the place and connects two
clauses of simple past and present tense.
Ex: I went to a place where I am a teacher.
Ex: You can go wherever you want.
What is a Preposition?
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the
preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object
to the rest of the sentence as in the following examples:
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
She read the book during class.
In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun "book" in space or in time.
A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and any associated adjectives
or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The most common prepositions are "about,"
"above," "across," "after," "against," "along," "among," "around," "at," "before," "behind," "below," "beneath," "beside,"
"between," "beyond," "but," "by," "despite," "down," "during," "except," "for," "from," "in," "inside," "into," "like," "near,"
"of," "off," "on," "onto," "out," "outside," "over," "past," "since," "through," "throughout," "till," "to," "toward," "under,"
"underneath," "until," "up," "upon," "with," "within," and "without."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition:
The children climbed the mountain without
fear.
In this sentence, the preposition "without" introduces the noun "fear." The prepositional
phrase "without fear" functions as an adverb describing how the children climbed.
There was rejoicing throughout the
land when the government was defeated.
Here, the preposition "throughout" introduces the noun phrase "the land." The prepositional
phrase acts as an adverb describing the location of the rejoicing.
The spider crawled slowly along the
banister.
The preposition "along" introduces the noun phrase "the banister" and the prepositional phrase
"along the banister" acts as an adverb, describing where the spider crawled.
The dog is hiding under the porch
because it knows it will be punished for chewing up a new pair of shoes.
Here the preposition "under" introduces the prepositional phrase "under the porch," which
acts as an adverb modifying the compound verb "is hiding."
The screenwriter searched for the
manuscript he was certain was somewhere in his office.
Similarly in this sentence, the preposition "in" introduces a prepositional phrase "in his
office," which acts as an adverb describing the location of the missing papers.
You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the following example:
I ate the pizza and the pasta.
Call the movers when you are ready.
You use a co-ordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent
clause. Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a co-ordinating conjunction:
Lilacs and violets are usually purple.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two nouns.
This movie is particularly interesting to
feminist film theorists, for the screenplay was written by Mae West.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two independent clauses.
Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most
of his youth dancing on rooftops and swallowing goldfish.
Here the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two participle phrases ("dancing on rooftops"
and "swallowing goldfish") which act as adverbs describing the verb "spends."
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent
clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as," "because," "before,"
"how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating conjunction:
After she had learned to drive, Alice
felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After she had learned
to drive."
If the paperwork arrives on time,
your chick will be mailed on Tuesday.
Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause "If the paperwork
arrives on time."
Gerald had to begun his thesis over again
when his computer crashed.
The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause "when his computer crashed."
Midwifery advocates argue that home births
are safer because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs.
In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer people
and fewer germs" is introduced by the subordinating conjunction "because."
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence elements. The most common
correlative conjunctions are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as “and”
whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a co-ordinating conjunction linked to an adjective
or adverb.)
The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative conjunctions:
Both my grandfather and my
father worked in the steel plant.
In this sentence, the correlative conjunction "both...and" is used to link the two noun phrases
that act as the compound subject of the sentence: "my grandfather" and "my father".
Bring either a Jello salad or
a potato scallop.
Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a Jello salad" and
"a potato scallop."
Corinne is trying to decide whether
to go to medical school or to go to law school.
Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two infinitive phrase "to
go to medical school" and "to go to law school."
The explosion destroyed not only
the school but also the neighboring pub.
In this example the correlative conjunction "not only ... but also" links the two noun phrases
("the school" and "neighboring pub"), which act as direct objects.
Note: some words, which appear as conjunctions can also appear as prepositions or as adverbs.
What is an Interjection?
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically
related to any other part of the sentence.
You
usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct
quotations.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:
Ouch, that hurt!
Oh no, I forgot that the exam was
today.
Hey! Put that down!
I heard one guy say to another guy, "He
has a new car, eh?"
I don't know about you but, good lord,
I think taxes are too high!
Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words that does not include a subject and verb.
(If the group of related words does contain a subject and verb, it is considered a clause.) There are several different kinds
of phrases. Understanding how they are constructed and how they function within a sentence can bolster a writer's confidence
in writing sentences that are sound in structure and various in form.
NOUN PHRASE
A noun phrase comprises a noun (obviously) and any associated
modifiers:
· The long and winding road
· A noun phrase
· any associated modifiers
The modifiers that accompany a noun can take any number of forms and combination
of forms: adjectives, of course ("the tall and brilliant professor"); a participial phrase ("the road following the edge of
the frozen lake"); an infinitive phrase ("the first man to walk on the moon"); a modifying clause ("the presentation that
he had made the day before"); and prepositional phrases ("the building next to the lodge, over by the highway"). [See below
for definitions of participial, infinitive, and prepositional phrases.] Usually, a noun phrase will be all of a piece, all
the words that compose it being contiguous with the noun itself. It is possible, however, for a noun phrase to be broken,
to become what we call discontinuous. Sometimes part of the noun phrase is delayed until the end of the sentence so
that that portion of the phrase (usually modifying phrases — participial or prepositional) can receive end weight or
focus. In our first example, for instance (noun phrase in dark red),
· Several accidents have been reported involving passengers falling from trains.
we could have put the entire noun phrase together: "Several accidents involving passengers falling from trains have been reported recently." Shifting the modifying
phrases of the red-colored part of the phrase to the end puts additional emphasis on that part. Here are some other examples:
· A rumor circulated
among the staff that he was being promoted to Vice President. (Instead of "A rumor that
he was being promoted to Vice President circulated among the staff.")
· The time had
come to stop spending money foolishly and to put something away for
the future. (Instead of "The time to stop spending money foolishly and to put something away for the future had come.")
· That hard drive was faulty that you sold me. (Instead of "That hard drive that you sold me
was faulty.")
· What business is it of yours? (Instead of "What business of yours is it?
")
Clearly, there is nothing inherently wrong with a discontinuous noun phrase.
One very good reason for a discontinuous noun phrase is to achieve a balance between a subject and its predicate:
· The story is
told that he was once a soldier in French Foreign Legion .
Without the discontinuous noun phrase in the sentence above,
we end up with a twelve-word subject, a linking verb, and a one-word predicate — sort of lop-sided.
One thing you want to watch out for with noun phrases is the long compound
noun phrase.* This is sometimes called the "stacked noun phrase" or "packed noun phrase." It is common to find
one noun modifying another: student body, book cover, water commission. But when we create a long string
of such attributive nouns or modifiers, we create difficulties:
· People who author web-pages have become aware of what is now known
as the uniform resource locator protocol problem.
The difficulty we have here is knowing what is modifying what. Also, the reader
keeps expecting the string to end, so the energy of the sentence (and our attention) dwindles into a series of false endings.
Such phrases are a particular temptation in technical writing. Usually, the solution to an overly extended compound noun phrase
is to take the last noun of the series and liberate it from the rest of the string (putting it at the beginning of the sentence)
and then to turn at least one of the modifying nouns into a prepositional phrase:
· The problem with the protocol of uniform resource locators is now recognized by people who author web-pages as. . . .
(This is one situation in which making a sentence longer is
probably an advantage.)
A vocative — an addressed person's name or substitute name —
is often a single word but sometimes takes the form of a noun phrase. A vocative is always treated as a parenthetical element
and is thus set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma or a pair of commas (if it appears within the flow of a sentence).
When vocatives are proper nouns (usually the case), they are also referred to as "nouns of address." Vocatives are
like adverbs: they can pop up almost anywhere in the sentence. Do not, however, get into the habit of throwing commas at people's
names; unless the name refers to someone who is actually being addressed, it is not a vocative and will not necessarily be
parenthetical:
· He told Jorge to turn the boat around.
· Jorge, turn the boat around
Quirk and Greenbaum
enumerate four different kinds of vocatives:
1. Single names, with or without a title: Jorge, Mr. Valdez, Dr. Valdez,
Uncle, Grandma. Dr. Valdez, will you please address the graduates?
2. The personal pronoun you (not a polite form of address): You,
put down that gun! The second person pronoun is sometimes combined with other words (but the result is often rather rude and
is never used in formal prose ["You over there, hurry up!" "You with the purple hair and silver nose rings, get back in line!"])
The indefinite pronouns can also serve as a vocative: Call an ambulance, somebody! Quick, anybody! Give me a
hand!
3. Appellatives (what we call people) of endearment ("Darling," "Sweetheart,"
"My dear," "Love") Come sit next to me, my dear.; of respect ("Sir," "Madam," "Your Honor," "Ladies and gentlemen")
I would ask you, Sir, never to do that again.; of profession or status ("Professor," "Mr. President," "Madam Chairman,"
"Coach") Please, Coach, let me play for a while.
4. Nominal clause: Whoever is making that noise, stop it now.
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition; a noun or
pronoun that serves as the object of the preposition, and, more often than not, an adjective or two that modifies the object.
Ernest Hemingway apparently fell in love with the rhythms of his prepositional phrases at the beginning of his short story
"Hills Like White Elephants":
The hills across the valley of the Ebro were long and white. On this side there was no shade and no trees and the station was between two lines of rails in the sun. Close against
the side of the station there was the warm shadow of the building and a curtain, made of strings of bamboo beads, hung across
the open door into the bar, to keep out flies. The American and the girl with him sat at a table in the shade, outside
the building. It was very hot and
the express from Barcelona would come in forty minutes. It stopped at this junction for two
minutes and went on to Madrid.
Prepositional phrases usually tell when or where: "in forty minutes," "in
the sun, against the side, etc." Prepositional phrases can perform other functions, however: Except Jo, the
children were remarkably like their father.
A prepositional phrase at the beginning of a sentence constitutes an introductory
modifier, which is usually a signal for a comma. However, unless an introductory prepositional phrase is unusually long, we
seldom need to follow it with a comma.
You may have learned that ending a sentence with a preposition is a
serious breach of grammatical etiquette. It doesn't take a grammarian to spot a sentence-ending preposition, so this is an
easy rule to get caught up on (!). Although it is often easy to remedy the offending preposition, sometimes it isn't, and
repair efforts sometimes result in a clumsy sentence. Based on shaky historical precedent, the rule itself is a latecomer
to the rules of writing. Those who dislike the rule are fond of recalling Churchill's rejoinder: <"That is nonsense up
with which I shall not put." We should also remember the child's complaint (attributed to E.B. White): "What did you bring
that book that I don't like to be read to out of up for?"
APPOSITIVE PHRASE
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that
immediately precedes it. (An appositive, then is the opposite of an oppositive.) Frequently another kind of
phrase will serve in apposition.
· My favorite teacher, a fine chess player in her own right, has
won several state-level tournaments. [Noun Phrase as appositive]
· The best exercise, walking briskly, is also the least expensive.
[Gerund phrase as appositive]
· Tashonda's goal in life, to become an occupational therapist,
is within her grasp this year, at last. [Infinitive phrase as appositive]
ABSOLUTE PHRASE
Usually (but not always, as we shall see), an absolute phrase
(also called a nominative absolute) is a group of words consisting of a noun or pronoun and a participle as well as any related
modifiers. Absolute phrases do not directly connect to or modify any specific word in the rest of the sentence; instead, they
modify the entire sentence, adding information. They are always treated as parenthetical elements and are set off from the
rest of the sentence with a comma or a pair of commas (sometimes by a dash or pair of dashes). Notice that absolute phrases
contain a subject (which is often modified by a participle), but not a true finite verb.
· Their reputation as winners secured by victory, the New York Liberty charged into the semifinals.
· The season nearly finished, Rebecca Lobo and Sophie Witherspoon emerged as true leaders.
· The two superstars signed autographs into the night, their faces
beaming happily.
When the participle of an absolute phrase is a form of to
be, such as being or having been, the participle is often left out but understood.
· The season [being] over, they were mobbed by fans in Times Square.
· [Having been] Stars all their adult lives, they seemed used to the attention.
Another kind of absolute phrase is found after a modified noun;
it adds a focusing detail or point of focus to the idea of the main clause. This kind of absolute phrase can take the form
of a prepositional phrase, an adjective phrase, or a noun phrase.
· The old firefighter stood over the smoking ruins, his senses alert
to any sign of another flare-up.
· His subordinates, their faces sweat-streaked and smudged with ash,
leaned heavily against the firetruck.
· They knew all too well how all their hard work could be undone —
in an instant.
It is not unusual for the information supplied in the absolute
phrase to be the most important element in the sentence. In fact, in descriptive prose, the telling details will often be
wrapped into a sentence in the form of an absolute phrase:
· Coach Nykesha strolled onto the court, her arms akimbo and a large
silver whistle clenched between her teeth.
· The new recruits stood in one corner of the gym, their uniforms
stiff and ill fitting, their faces betraying their anxiety.
A noun phrase can also exist as an absolute phrase:
· Your best friends, where are they now, when you need them?
· And then there was my best friend Sally — the dear girl
— who has certainly fallen on hard times.
It might be useful to review the material on Misplaced Modifiers because it
is important not to confuse an absolute phrase with a misplaced modifier.
INFINITIVE PHRASE
An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive — the
root of the verb preceded by to — and any modifiers or complements associated with it. Infinitive phrases can
act as adjectives, adverbs, and nouns.
· Her plan to subsidize child care won wide acceptance among urban
politicians. [modifies plan, functions as an adjective]
· She wanted to raise taxes. [noun-object of the sentence]
· To watch Uncle Billy tell this story is an eye-opening experience. [noun-subject of the sentence]
· To know her is to love her. [noun, predicate nominative]
· Juan went to college to study veterinary medicine. [tells us
why he went, so it's an adverb]
GERUND PHRASE
Gerunds, verbals that end in -ing and that act as nouns,
frequently are associated with modifiers and complements in a gerund phrase. These phrases function as units and can do anything
that a noun can do. Notice that other phrases, especially prepositional phrases, are frequently part of the gerund phrase.
· Cramming for tests is not a good study strategy. [gerund phrase as subject]
· John enjoyed swimming in the lake after dark. [gerund phrase
as object]
· I'm really not interested in studying biochemistry for the rest
of my life. [gerund phrase as object of the preposition in ]
PARTICIPIAL PHRASE
Present participles, verbals ending in -ing, and past
participles, verbals that end in -ed (for regular verbs) or other forms (for irregular verbs), are combined with complements
and modifiers and become part of important phrasal structures. Participial phrases always act as adjective. When they begin
a sentence, they are often set off by a comma (as an introductory modifier); otherwise, participial phrases will be set off
by commas if they are parenthetical elements.
· The stone steps, having been worn down by generations of students,
needed to be replaced. [modifies "steps"]
· Working around the clock, the firefighters finally put out the last of the California
brush fires. [modifies "firefighters"]
· The pond, frozen over since early December, is now safe for
ice-skating. [modifies "pond"]
Clauses:
the Essential
Building-Blocks
Definition
A clause is a group of related words containing a subject
and a verb A clause can be usefully distinguished from a phrase, which is a group of related words that does not
contain a subject-verb relationship, such as "in the morning" or "running down the street" or "having grown used to this harassment."
A review of the different kinds of phrases might be helpful.
Words We Use to Talk about Clauses
Learning the various terms used to define and classify clauses
can be a vocabulary lesson in itself. This digital handout categorizes clauses into independent and dependent
clauses. This simply means that some clauses can stand by themselves, as separate sentences, and some can't. Another term
for dependent clause is subordinate clause: this means that the clause is subordinate to another element (the independent
clause) and depends on that other element for its meaning. The subordinate clause is created by a subordinating conjunction
or dependent word.
An independent clause, "She is older than her brother" (which
could be its own sentence), can be turned into a dependent or subordinate clause when the same group of words begins with
a dependent word (or a subordinating conjunction in this case): "Because she is older than her brother, she tells him
what to do."
Clauses are also classified as restrictive and nonrestrictive
clauses. (The words essential and nonessential are sometimes used and mean the same thing as restrictive and
nonrestrictive, respectively. British grammarians will make this same distinction by referring to clauses with the terms defining
and non-defining.) A nonrestrictive clause is not essential to the meaning of the sentence; it can be removed from
the sentence without changing its basic meaning. Nonrestrictive clauses are often set apart from the rest of the sentence
by a comma or a pair of commas (if it's in the middle of a sentence).
· Professor Villa, who used to be a secretary for the President,
can type 132 words a minute.
Review the Notorious Confusables section on the
difference between That and Which for additional clarification on the distinction between restrictive and nonrestrictive.
Relative clauses are dependent clauses introduced
by a relative pronoun (that, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, and of which). Relative
clauses can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive. Review the section on Comma Usage for additional help in determining
whether relative clauses are restrictive or nonrestrictive (parenthetical or not) and whether commas should be used to set
them off from the rest of the sentence. In a relative clause, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb (remember that
all clauses contain a subject-verb relationship) and refers to (relates to) something preceding the clause.
· Giuseppe said that the plantar wart, which had been bothering him for years,
had to be removed.
(In this sentence, the clause in this color is a restrictive [essential] clause [a noun clause —
see below] and will not be set off by a comma; the underlined relative clause [modifying "wart"] is nonrestrictive [nonessential
— it can be removed from the sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence] and is set off by commas.)
Some relative clauses will refer to more than a single word
in the preceding text; they can modify an entire clause or even a series of clauses.
· Charlie didn't get the job in administration, which really surprised
his friends.
Charlie didn't get the job in administration, and he didn't even apply for the Dean's position, which
really surprised his friends.
A relative clause that refers to or modifies
entire clauses in this manner is called a sentential clause. Sometimes the "which" of a sentential clause will get
tucked into the clause as the determiner of a noun:
· Charlie might very well take a job as headmaster, in which case
the school might as well close down.
Elliptical Clauses: see below.
Finally, everybody's favorite clause is the Santa Clause,
which needs no further definition:
Independent Clauses
Independent Clauses could stand by themselves as
discrete sentences, except that when they do stand by themselves, separated from other clauses, they're normally referred
to simply as sentences, not clauses. The ability to recognize a clause and to know when a clause is capable of acting as an
independent unit is essential to correct writing and is especially helpful in avoiding sentence fragments and run –
on sentences.
Needless to say, it is important to learn how to combine independent
clauses into larger units of thought. In the following sentence, for example,
· Bob didn't mean to do it, but he did it anyway.
We have two independent clauses — "Bob
didn't mean to do it" and "he did it anyway" — connected by a comma and a coordinating conjunction ("but"). If the word
"but" is missing from this sentence, the sentence would be called a comma splice: two independent clauses would be incorrectly
connected, smooshed together, with only a comma between them. Furthermore, a long series of clauses of similar structure and
length begins to feel monotonous, leading to what is called "Dick and Jane" or primer language (after the kind of prose that
we find in first grade textbooks or "primers"). (See the section on Avoiding Primer Language for advice and exercises on combining
sentences.) It would also be helpful at this time to review the section on Punctuation Between Two Independent Clauses.
Clauses are combined in three different ways: coordination,
subordination, and by means of a semicolon. Coordination involves joining independent clauses with one of the coordinating
conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and sometimes* so. Clauses thus connected are usually nicely balanced
in length and import.
· Ramonita thought about joining the church choir, but she never
talked to her friends about it.
Subordination involves turning one of the clauses
into a subordinate element (one that cannot stand on its own) through the use of a Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called
a dependent word) or a Relative Pronoun. When the clause begins with a subordinating word, it is no longer an independent
clause; it is called a dependent or subordinate clause because it depends on something else (the independent clause) for its
meaning. There are other ways of combining ideas — by turning independent clauses into various kinds of modifying phrases.
Again, see the section on. Avoiding Primer Language
· Although Ramonita often thought about joining the choir, she never talked to her friends about it.
· Ramonita never talked to her friends about joining the choir, because
she was afraid they would make fun of her.
· Yasmin is Ramonita's sister. Yasmin told Ramonita to join the choir
no matter what her friends said.
Joining these with the use
of a relative clause:
Yasmin, [who is] Ramonita's sister,
told Ramonita to join the choir. . . .
Semicolons can connect two independent clauses with or without
the help of a Conjunctive adverb (transitional expression). Semicolons should be used sparingly and only when the two independent
clauses involved are closely related and nicely balanced in terms of length and import.
· Ramonita has such a beautiful voice; many couples have asked her to
sing at their wedding.
· Ramonita's voice has a clear, angelic quality; furthermore, she clearly
enjoys using it.
(Click on the words semicolons and conjunctive
adverb above for further help with their use.)
Take these two quizzes on recognizing independent
clauses before proceeding to the section on dependent clauses.
Dependent Clauses
Dependent Clauses cannot stand by themselves and
make good sense. They must be combined with an independent clause so that they become part of a sentence that can stand by
itself. (Review the section on commas usage for advice and plenty of exercises on the punctuation requirements when dependent
and independent clauses are combined.) Unlike independent clauses, which simply are what they are, dependent clauses are said
to perform various functions within a sentence. They act either in the capacity of some kind of noun or as some kind of modifier.
There are three basic kinds of dependent clauses, categorized according to their function in the sentence. Remember that a
dependent clause always contains a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand by itself.
· Adverb clauses provide information about what is going on in the main (independent) clause: where, when, or why. "When the movie
is over, we'll go downtown." or "John wanted to write a book because he had so much to say about the subject."
· Adjective clauses work like multi-word adjectives. "My brother, who is an engineer, figured it out for me." or "The bridge that collapsed in the winter storm will cost millions to replace."
A special kind of adjective clause begins with a relative adverb (where, when, and why) but nonetheless functions
as adjectivally.
· Noun clauses can do anything that nouns can do. "What he knows [subject] is no concern of mine." or "Do you know what
he knows [object]?" or "What can you tell me about what he has done this year [object of the preposition "about"]?"
|
|
What they did with the treasure remains
a mystery.
Whatever you want for dessert is fine with me.
That you should feel this way about her came
as a great surprise to us. |
|
|
Juan finally revealed what he had done with
the money.
Her husband spent whatever she had saved over the years.
I don't know what I should do next. |
|
|
In fact, he wrote a book about what he had
done over the years.
We are interested in what he does for a living. |
|
|
The trouble was that they had never been there
before.
The biggest disappointment of last season was that the women's team didn't make it to the final four. |
|
|
My brother, who now teaches math in a small
college, never liked math in high school.
The dealership that sold more cars ended up actually losing money.
The
Federated Bank, which was founded nearly two centuries ago, folded during the state's economic crisis. |
|
|
The team had fallen behind by ten points before
they were able to figure out the opponent's defense.
Since he started working nights, he doesn't see much of
his kids.
While Josie sat inside watching television, Gladys shoveled the driveway. |
Combinations of Clauses
Review the section on sentence variety for help in understanding
the variety of sentence patterns. It is difficult to know if you're using different patterns unless you keep in mind the way
that clauses are combined in larger sentence-units of thought. Pay special attention to the variety of sentence types: simple,
compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences. These are defined by their essential ingredients, the clauses that make
them up. There is also a quiz at the end of that section that will test your ability to distinguish among the kinds of clauses
that make up a sentence.
Elliptical Clauses
Elliptical Clauses are grammatically incomplete
in the sense that they are missing either the relative pronoun (dependent word) that normally introduces such a clause or
something from the predicate in the second part of a comparison. The missing parts of the elliptical clause can be guessed
from the context and most readers are not aware that anything is missing. In fact, elliptical clauses are regarded as both
useful and correct, even in formal prose, because they are often elegant, efficient means of expression. (The omitted words
are noted in brackets below).
· Coach Espinoza knew [that] this team would be the best [that] she had
coached in recent years.
· Though [they were] sometimes nervous on the court, her recruits proved
to be hard workers.
· Sometimes the veterans knew the recruits could play better than they [could play].
Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives, and
Adverbs
If a clause can stand alone as a sentence , it is an independent clause, as in the following example:
Independent
The Prime Minister is in Ottawa
Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in this
case, they are dependent clauses or subordinate clauses. Consider the same clause with the subordinating conjunction
"because" added to the beginning:
Dependent
When the Prime Minister is
in Ottawa
In this case, the clause could not be a sentence by itself,
since the conjunction "because" suggests that the clause is providing an explanation for something else. Since this dependent
clause answers the question "when," just like an adverb, it is called a dependent adverb clause (or simply an adverb
clause, since adverb clauses are always dependent clauses). Note how the clause can replace the adverb "tomorrow" in the following
examples:
Adverb
The committee will meet tomorrow.
Adverb clause
The committee will meet when
the Prime Minister is in Ottawa.
Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for
nouns and for adjectives.
Noun Clauses
A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place
of a noun in another clause or phrase Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of a verb or the object of
a preposition answering the questions "who (m)?" or "what?” Consider the following examples:
Noun
I know Latin.
Noun clause
I know that Latin is no
longer spoken as a native language.
In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direst object
of the verb "know." In the second example, the entire clause "that Latin ..." is the direct object.
In fact, many noun clauses are indirect questions.
Noun
Their destination is
unknown.
Noun clause
Where they are going
is unknown.
The question "Where are they going?," with a slight change in
word order, becomes a noun clause when used as part of a larger unit -- like the noun "destination," the clause is the subject
of the verb "is."
Here are some more examples of noun clauses:
about what you bought at
the mall
This noun clause is the object of the preposition "about," and
answers the question "about what?"
Whoever broke the
vase will have to pay for it.
This noun clause is the subject of the verb "will have to pay,"
and answers the question "who will have to pay?"
The Toronto fans hope that
the Blue Jays will win again.
This noun clause is the object of the verb "hope," and answers
the question "what do the fans hope?"
Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a dependent clause, which takes
the place of an adjective in another clause or phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun answering
questions like "which?" or "what kind of?" Consider the following examples:
Adjective
The red coat
Adjective clause
The coat, which I bought
yesterday
Like the word "red" in the first example, the dependent clause
"which I bought yesterday" in the second example modifies the noun "coat." Note that an adjective clause usually comes after what it modifies, while an adjective usually comes before.
In formal writing, an adjective clause begins with the relative
pronouns "who(m)," "that," or "which." In informal writing or speech, you may leave out the relative pronoun when it is not
the subject of the adjective clause, but you should usually include the relative pronoun in formal, academic writing:
Informal
The books people read were
mainly religious.
Formal
The books that people
read were mainly religious.
Informal
Some firefighters never meet
the people they save.
Formal
Some firefighters never meet
the people whom they save.
Here are some more examples of adjective clauses:
the meat which they ate
was tainted
This clause modifies the noun "meat" and answers the question
"which meat?".
about the movie which made
him cry
This clause modifies the noun "movie" and answers the question
"which movie?".
they are searching for the
one who borrowed the book
The clause modifies the pronoun "one" and answers the question
"which one?".
Did I tell you about the author
whom I met?
The clause modifies the noun "author" and answers the question
"which author?".
Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause is a dependent clause which takes the
place of an adverb in another clause or phrase. An adverb clause answers questions such as "when?", "where?", "why?", "with
what goal/result?", and "under what conditions?".
Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb in the following
example:
adverb
The premier gave a speech
here.
adverb clause
The premier gave a speech
where the workers were striking.
Usually, a subordinating conjunction like "because," "when(ever),"
"where(ever)," "since," "after," and "so that," will introduce an adverb clause. Note that a dependent adverb clause can never stand alone as a complete sentence:
independent clause
they left the locker room
dependent adverb clause
after they left the locker
room
The first example can easily stand alone as a sentence, but
the second cannot -- the reader will ask what happened "after they left the
locker room". Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and
condition:
Cause
Hamlet wanted to kill his
uncle because the uncle had murdered Hamlet's father.
The adverb clause answers the question "why?".
effect
Hamlet wanted to kill his
uncle so that his father's murder would be avenged.
The adverb clause answers the question "with what goal/result?".
time
After Hamlet's uncle
Claudius married Hamlet's mother, Hamlet wanted to kill him.
The adverb clause answers the question "when?". Note the change
in word order -- an adverb clause can often appear either before or after the main part of the sentence.
place
Where the whole Danish
court was assembled, Hamlet ordered a play in an attempt to prove his uncle's guilt.
The adverb clause answers the question "where?".
condition
If the British co-operate,
the Europeans may achieve monetary union.
The adverb clause answers the question "under what conditions?".
Written by David Megginson
Copyright © 1994, 1995 and 1996 by the University of Ottawa
Independent and Dependent Clauses (Definitions)
When you want to use commas and semicolons in sentences and
when you are concerned about whether a sentence is or is not a fragment, a good way to start is to be able to recognize dependent
and independent clauses. The definitions offered here will help you with this.
This handout will:
Definitions
Independent Clause (IC)
An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject
and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.
Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for
his chemistry quiz. (IC)
Dependent Clause (DC)
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject
and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked
by a dependent marker word.
Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his
chemistry quiz . . . (DC)
(What happened when he studied? The thought is incomplete.)
Dependent Marker Word (DM)
A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of
an independent clause that makes it into a dependent clause.
Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop
for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy. (DM)
Some common dependent markers are: after, although,
as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever,
whether, and while.
Connecting dependent and independent clauses
There are two types of words that can be used as connectors
at the beginning of an independent clause: coordinating conjunctions and independent marker words.
1. Coordinating Conjunction (CC)
The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the beginning of an independent
clause are and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet. When the second independent clause in a sentence begins with a coordinating
conjunction, a comma is needed before the coordinating conjunction:
Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry
quiz, but it was hard to concentrate because of the noise. (CC)
2. Independent Marker Word (IM)
An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an independent clause.
These words can always begin a sentence that can stand-alone. When the second independent clause in a sentence has an independent
marker word, a semicolon is needed before the independent marker word.
Example: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry
quiz; however, it was hard to concentrate because of the noise. (IM)
Some common independent markers are: also, consequently,
furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.
Proper Punctuation Methods
This table gives some examples of ways to combine independent
and dependent clauses and shows how to punctuate them properly.
|
IC. IC. |
I went to the store. I didn't buy any bread. |
|
IC; IC. |
I went to the store; I didn't buy any bread. |
|
IC, CC IC. |
I went to the store, but I didn't buy any bread. |
|
IC; IM, IC. |
I went to the store; however, I didn't buy any bread. |
|
DC, IC. |
When I went to the store, I didn't buy any bread. |
|
IC DC. |
I didn't buy any bread when I went to the store. |
Some Common Errors to Avoid
Comma Splices
A comma splice is the use of a comma between two independent
clauses. You can usually fix the error by changing the comma to a period and therefore making the two clauses into two separate
sentences, by changing the comma to a semicolon, or by making one clause dependent by inserting a dependent marker word in
front of it.
Incorrect: I like this class, it is very interesting.
Correct: I like this class. It is very interesting.
(or) I like this class; it is very interesting.
(or) I like this class, and it is very interesting.
(or) I like this class because it is very interesting.
(or) Because it is very interesting, I like this class.
Fused Sentences
Fused sentences happen when there are two independent clauses
not separated by any form of punctuation. This error is also known as a run-on sentence. The error can sometimes be
corrected by adding a period, semicolon, or colon to separate the two sentences.
Incorrect: My professor is intelligent I've
learned a lot from her.
Correct: My professor is intelligent. I've learned
a lot from her.
(or) My professor is intelligent; I've learned a lot from
her.
(or) My professor is intelligent, and I've learned a lot
from her.
(or) My professor is intelligent; moreover, I've learned
a lot from her.
Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments happen by treating a dependent clause or
other incomplete thought as a complete sentence. You can usually fix this error by combining it with another sentence to make
a complete thought or by removing the dependent marker.
Incorrect: Because I forgot the exam was today.
Correct: Because I forgot the exam was today, I didn't
study.
(or) I forgot the exam was today.
Introduction
|
An adverb may be a single word such as quickly,
here or yesterday, or a phrase such as the day before yesterday or to see my mother. However,
adverbs can also be clauses, containing a subject and a full verb. This page will explain the basic types of adverb clauses
(sometimes called "adverbial clauses") and how to recognize them.
Adverbs, adverb phrases, and adverb clauses
Look at these sentences:
|
I saw the movie yesterday. |
|
I saw the movie on Friday. |
|
I saw the movie before I left for Calgary. |
In the first sentence, "yesterday" is a one-word adverb, "on Friday" is an
adverb phrase, and "before I left for Calgary" is a adverb clause. All of them answer the question "When?", but the adverb
clause has a subject ("I") and a full verb ("left"). It is introduced by "before", so it is a dependent clause. This
means that it cannot stand-alone: "Before I left for Calgary" would not be a full sentence. It needs a main clause ("I saw
the movie"). An adverb clause, then, is a dependent clause that does the same job as an adverb or an adverb phrase.
Types of adverb clause
There are many types of adverb clauses. Here are
some examples of the most common types:
|
Type |
Question answered |
Example |
|
Place |
Where? |
Wherever there are computers, there is
Microsoft software. |
|
Time |
When? |
After the fruit is harvested, it is sold
at the market. |
|
Cause |
Why? (What caused this?) |
I didn't call her because I'm shy. |
|
Purpose |
Why? (What was the reason for doing this?) |
She took a computer course so that she could get a better job. |
|
Concession |
Why is this unexpected? |
Although Jay has a Master's degree, he
works as a store clerk. |
|
Condition |
Under what conditions? |
If you save your money, you will be able
to go to college. |
As you can see from the examples above, most adverb clauses can be recognized
because they are introduced by a particular word or phrase (such as "when", "so that", etc.). These words and phrases are
called subordinating conjunctions, and there are many of them, including the2e:
|
Subordination conjunctions |
|
after, before, until, while, because, since, as, so that, in order that, if, unless, whether, though,
although, even though, where |
If you would like more information on this topic, try one of the pages below.
When you are sure you understand clearly, you can click on "First exercise" to continue.
|
ELC Courses
ELC Courses, UVic English Language Centre, 1999
Introduction
Relative Clauses
A relative clause acts as a clause that modifies a noun or
pronoun. Relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, which, that, whose). Relative clauses can either be restrictive or
nonrestrictive.
Restrictive
Relative Clauses
A restrictive relative clause is essential in order
to complete the meaning of the main clause.
Examples:
Where is the girl who
is going?
That's the one which I
like best.
Is he the one whose
house is on fire?
Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses
A nonrestrictive relative clause adds definition to the main clause, but is not necessary for meaning. Nonrestrictive
relative clauses are set off by commas.
Examples:
That girl, who
is going to the concert, has a green dress.
The orange car, which is my favorite, has seating for six.
The tuba player, whose house is on fire, just went to band practice.
Common Usage Problems
Beware of sentence fragments
when trying to use a relative clause:
He was a loser. Who never thought he would win. [Incorrect]
He
was a loser who never thought he would win. [Revised]
The relative pronoun should immediately follow
the antecedent in a relative clause. Violating this rule leads to confusion:
She saw the guy who dated Sheila who
has a red mohawk. [Unclear]
Does Sheila or the guy have a red mohawk? [Confusing]
Revised:
She
saw the guy, who has a red mohawk, who dated Sheila.
'If-clauses'
Type I
|
Form |
Type I.
|
if-clause |
+ main clause |
|
If / Unless / If .......not |
+ future I |
|
+ present tense |
+ shall / will / can /
may / might + verb |
|
If I learn my vocabulary, |
I'll get a good mark |
|
or the other way round: |
|
|
main clause |
+ if-clause |
|
shall / will / can / may
/ might + verb + present tense |
simple present |
|
I'll get a good mark. |
if I learn my vocabulary |
|
|
Function |
open condition:
Probable action/result
in the future according to a real condition
You'll catch the train if you leave before ten. |
|
Curriculum |
Lehrplan:
- Type I and II in form 7 and 8
- if vs. when
Lehrbuch:
- previously done:
- future I
- present tense
|
|
Difficulties |
1. form:
- if - plays,
- main clause -future I
- if - unless
2. function
- open conditions
- What's condition - what's consequence?
3. interlingual interferences
- No future tense in if-clauses
- if vs. when
- unless
4. other difficulties
- position of the
if-clause
|
|
Situations |
- operating instructions
- making appointments
- warnings or possible rewards
- suggestions
|
Type II
|
Form |
|
Type II:
if-clause |
+ main clause
|
|
If / Unless / If .......not
past tense, |
+ conditional I:+
should / would / could / 'd / might + verb |
|
If I learnt my vocabulary, |
I'd get a good mark. |
|
or the other way round: |
|
|
main clause |
+ if-clause |
|
I'd get a good mark |
if I learnt my vocabulary |
If-clauses in front position are more emphatic.
If-clauses in front positionen
get a comma. |
|
Function |
Hypothetical statements
- Possible action/result according to a less
probable condition in the future
We'd have enough money for a new car if you found a good job.
- Fantasized result
or action according to an unreal (untrue) condition in the present
We'd buy a Rolls
Royce if we were rich. |
|
Curriculum |
Lehrplan:
- Type II in form 7 or 8
- if I were you,
Lehrbuch:
- previously done:
- past tense
- if-clause type
I
|
|
Difficulties |
1. form:
- if - played,
- conditional I
- if - unless
2. function
- Possible action/result according to a less
probable condition in the future
- Fantasized result or action according to
an unreal (untrue) condition in the present: "virtual reality"
- no time indicated by past tense = today
or tomorrow
3. interlingual interferences
- No conditional tense in if-clauses
- if vs. when
- unless
4. other difficulties
- 'were' instead of 'was' (rest of old conjunctive)
- position of the
if-clause
|
|
Situations |
- dreams and nightmares
- mock examinations: testing a person
- exaggerated timidity (But if the bridge
fell down....)
- reproaches
|
Type III
|
Form |
|
Type III:
if-clause |
+ main clause
|
|
If / Unless / If .......not
+ past perfect, |
+ conditional II |
|
If I had + -ed or
3rd form, |
+ should / would/
could / might + have + verb+ed or 3rd form |
|
If I had learnt my vocabulary, |
I would have got a good mark. |
|
or the other way round: |
. |
|
main clause |
+ if-clause |
|
should / would/ could
/ might + have + verb -ed or 3rd form, |
if I had
+ -ed or 3rd form |
|
I would have got a good mark |
if I had learnt my vocabulary |
|
|
Function |
If- clause:
unreal condition: the condition can't be fulfilled any longer, because it should have happened in the past, but didn't.
main clause: the consequence
can't take place any more, because the condition couldn't be fulfilled.
If I had learnt more (but I didn't learn=unreal
condition), I would have got a better mark. (So I didn't get a better
mark= impossible consequence)
or the other way round:
I would have got a better mark. (So I didn't get a better mark= impossible consequence) if I had learnt more (but I didn't learn=unreal condition) |
|
Curriculum |
Lehrplan:
form 9 + 10 (repetition)
Lehrbuch:
Type I and II in form 7 and 8
if vs. when |
|
Difficulties |
1. interlingual interferences
No conditional tense in if-clauses
if vs. when
unless
2. other difficulties
position of the if-clause |
|
Situations |
- dreams and nightmares about the past
- castles in the air in the past
- reproaches
- self-blaming
|
Tenses in English
Tense
Tense is the state which shows the time of an action. Generally we have three main tenses in English (present, past
and future) each of them is divided in four categories as follows.
1. Present Tense
a. Simple Present Tense
b. Present Prograssive Tense
c. Present Perfect Tense
d. Present Perfect Prograssive Tense
a. The Simple Present Tense
Subject
+ verb + object / complement
Uses the verb's base form (write,
work), or, for third-person singular subjects, the base form plus an -s ending (he writes, she works).
The PRESENT TENSE indicates that an action is present, now, relative
to the speaker or writer. Generally, it is used to describe actions that are factual or habitual -- things that occur in the
present but that are not necessarily happening right now: "It rains a lot in Portland"
is a kind of timeless statement. Compare that to the present progressive -- "It is raining in Portland" -- which means
that something is, in fact, going on right now. "I use my bike to get around town." is in the present, but I'm not
actually on my bike right now. An instantaneous sense of the present can be conveyed with either the simple present or the
progressive: "Watch him now: he holds [is holding] down the control key at the same time that he presses [is
pressing] the letter d."
The present tense is used to describe events that are scheduled (by nature or
by people):
Ex: "High tide is at 3:15 p.m. The Super Bowl starts at 6:15 p.m."
The present tense can be used to suggest the past with what is sometimes called
the fictional (or historic) present: "We were watching the back door when, all of a sudden, in walks Deirdre." With
verbs of communicating, the present tense can also suggest a past action: "Deirdre tells me that she took her brother
to the dentist." Most oddly, the present tense can convey a sense of the future, especially with verbs such as arrive,
come, and leave that suggest a kind of plan or schedule:
Ex: "The train
from Boston arrives this afternoon at two o'clock."
--Present tense expresses habitual activities are frequently signaled
by time expressions such as the following:
|
all the time
always
every class
every
day
every holiday
every hour |
every month
every semester
every week
every
year
most of the time
never |
often
rarely
sometimes
usually |
Ex: He smokes every day.
-- Present tense expresses general fact.
Ex: The earth is round.
The sky is blue.
Milk is white.
-- Present tense expresses state of being.
Ex: She is happy.
They are boys.
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I walk |
we walk |
|
you walk |
you walk |
|
he/she/it walks |
they walk |
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I am |
we are |
|
you are |
you are |
|
he/she/it is |
they are |
Note: Simple present tense has four
states they are Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative, and Negative Interrogative.
Ex:
Affirmative --------------------------
She has a pen.
Negative
-------------------------------She doesn’t have a pen.
Interrogative
--------------------------Does she have a pen?
Negative Interrogative
--------------Doesn’t she have a pen?
b. The Present Progressive Tense
Subject
+ Be verb + verb (ing) + object / complement
Indicates continuing action, something
going on now or at the time of speaking. This tense is formed with the helping "to be" verb, in the present tense, plus the
present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending):
Ex:
I am buying all my family's
Christmas gifts early this year.
She is working through the
holiday break.
Deirdre is being a really
good girl in these days before Christmas.
The present progressive can suggest that an action is going to happen in the
future, especially with verbs that convey the idea of a plan or of movement from one place or condition to another:
Ex: "The team is arriving in two hours. He's moving
to Portland this summer." Because
The present progressive can suggest either the present or the future; it is
usually modified by adverbs of time.
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic verbs and
not with stative verbs.
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I am walking |
we are walking |
|
you are walking |
you are walking |
|
he/she/it is walking |
they are walking |
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I am being |
we are being |
|
you are being |
you are being |
|
he/she/it is being |
they are being |
Note: present progressive tense
has four states they are Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative, and Negative Interrogative.
Ex:
Affirmative ---------------
I am buying all my family's Christmas gifts early this year.
Negative-------------------
I am not buying all my family's Christmas gifts early this year. Interrogative -------------Am I buying all
my family's Christmas gifts early this year?
Negative Interrogative--Am
I not buying all my family's Christmas gifts early this year?
c.The Present Perfect Tense
Subject
+ have/ has + verb 3rd form + object / complement
Is formed with a present tense form
of "to have" plus the past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in form). This tense indicates
either that an action was completed (finished or "perfected") at some unspecified time in the past or that the action extends
to the present:
· I have walked two miles already [but I'm still walking].
· I have run the Boston Marathon [but that was some time ago].
· The critics have praised the film Saving Private Ryan since it came out [and they continue
to do so].
Present perfect tense expresses
an action that is repeated many times in the past.
Ex:
· I have eaten lunch there several times.
When present perfect is used with
(since and for) it expresses an action that is started in the past may continue to the present or even may go to the
future.
Ex:
· She has been in Germany
since 1999.
· He has watched TV for two hours.
The choice between Present Perfect
and Simple Past is often determined by the adverbial accompanying the verb. With adverbs referring to a period gone by, we
would use the simple past:
· I studied all night/yesterday/on Wednesday.
With adverbs beginning in the past
and going up to present, we would use the present perfect:
· I have studied up to now/lately/already.
An adverbial time-marker such as
"today, this month or "for an hour" can take either the simple past or present perfect:
· I worked/have worked hard today.
We tend to use the Present Perfect
when reporting or announcing an event of the recent past:
· The company's current CEO has lied repeatedly to her employees.
But we tend to use the Simple Past
when reporting or announcing events of the finished, more distant past:
· Washington encouraged his
troops. Because the time limits for Present Perfect are relatively elastic (stretching up to the present), it is somewhat
less definite than the Simple Past:
· Brett has worked with some of the best chefs of Europe [in
the course of his long and continuing career].
· Brett worked with Chef Pierre [when he lived in Paris].
(Notice how the topic of Brett's
work is narrowed down as we move from Present Perfect to Simple Past.)
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I have slept |
we have slept |
|
you have slept |
you have slept |
|
he/she/it has slept |
they have slept |
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I have been |
we have been |
|
you have been |
you have been |
|
he/she/it has been |
they have been |
Note: present perfect tense has
four states they are Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative, and Negative Interrogative.
Ex:
Affirmative------------------
Brett has worked with some of the best chefs of Europe.
Negative---------------------- Brett hasn’t worked with some of the best chefs of Europe.
Interrogative -----------------Has
Brett worked with some of the best chefs of Europe?
Negative Interrogative------Hasn’t
Brett worked with some of the best chefs of Europe?
d.The Present Perfect Progressive Tense
Subject
+ have / has + been + verb (ing) + object / complement
Indicates a continuous action that
has been finished at some point in the past or that was initiated in the past and continues to happen. The action is usually
of limited duration and has some current relevance and the action sometimes may continue to the future.
Ex: She has been
running and her heart is still beating fast.
The present perfect progressive
frequently is used to describe an event of the recent past; it is often accompanied by just in this usage
Ex: It has just
been raining.
This tense is formed with the modal "HAVE" or "HAS" (for third-person singular
subjects) plus "BEEN," plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending):
Ex:
I have been working in the garden all morning.
George has been painting that house for as long as I can remember."
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic verbs and
not with stative verbs.
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I have been sleeping |
we have been sleeping |
|
you have been sleeping |
you have been sleeping |
|
he/she/it has been sleeping |
they have been sleeping |
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
There is no present perfect progressive for the
"to be" verb. "Have been being" is expressed simply as "have been": "We have been being successful in the past." |
Note: present perfect progressive
tense has four states they are Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative, and Negative Interrogative.
Ex:
Affirmative ------------------------------I
have been working in the garden all morning. Negative ----------------------------------I haven’t been
working in the garden all morning.
Interrogative-----------------------------Have
I been working in the garden all morning?
Negative Interrogative
----------------Haven’t I been working in the garden all morning?
2. The Past Tense
a. Simple Past Tense
b. Past Prograssive Tense
c. Past Perfect Tense
d. Past Perfect Prograssive Tense
a. The Simple Past Tense
Subject
+ verb (second form) + object / complement
Indicates that an action is in the
past relative to the speaker or writer.
Or indicates an action that is started
and finished at a specified time in the past.
· When the time period has finished: "We went to Chicago
last Christmas."
· When the time period is definite: "We visited Mom last week."
· With for, when the action is finished: "I worked with the FBI for two months."
It indicates an action was finished
before another action in the past, when it joins with a relative adverb to another past tense.
Ex: I ate my dinner,
when she arrived.
Regular verbs use the verb's base
form (scream, work) plus the -ed ending (screamed, worked). Irregular verbs alter their form in some other way (slept,
drank, drove).
Students for whom English is a second language sometimes (quite understandably)
have trouble distinguishing between the Simple Past and the Present Perfect tenses. There is more information about the difference
between these two tenses available under the Present Perfect description.
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I walked |
we walked |
|
you walked |
you walked |
|
he/she/it walked |
they walked |
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I was |
we were |
|
you were |
you were |
|
he/she/it was |
they were |
Note: Past tense has four states
they are Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative, and Negative Interrogative.
Ex:
Affirmative ----------------------------We
went to Chicago last Christmas.
Negative --------------------------------We
didn’t go to Chicago last Christmas.
Interrogative --------------------------Did
we go to Chicago last Christmas?
Negative Interrogative
--------------Didn’t we go to Chicago last Christmas?
b.The Past Progressive Tense
Subject
+ auxiliary verb (was, were) + verb (ing) + object / complement
Indicates continuing action, something
that was happening, going on, at some point in the past. This tense is formed with the helping "to be" verb, in the past tense,
plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending):
- I was riding my bike all day yesterday.
- Joel was being a terrible role model for his
younger brother.
The past progressive indicates
a limited duration of time and is thus a convenient way to indicate that something took place (in the simple past) while something
else was happening:
- Carlos lost his watch while he was running.
The past progressive can express
incomplete action.
- I was sleeping on the couch when Bertie smashed
through the door.
As opposed to the simple past, which
suggests a completed action?
- I slept on the couch last night.
The past progressive is also used
to poke fun at or criticize an action that is sporadic but habitual in nature:
- Tashonda was always handing in late
papers.
- My father was always lecturing my brother.
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic verbs and
not with stative verbs.
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I was walking |
we were walking |
|
you were walking |
you were walking |
|
he/she/it was walking |
they were walking |
Note: Past progressive tense has
four states they are Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative, and Negative Interrogative.
Ex:
Affirmative -----------------------------------I was riding my bike all day yesterday.
Negative---------------------------------------I was not riding my bike all day yesterday. Interrogative
--------------------------------Was I riding my bike all day yesterday?
Negative Interrogative --------------------Was I not riding my bike all day yesterday?
c. The Past Perfect Tense
Subject
+ had + verb (3rd form) + object / complement
Indicates that an action was completed
(finished or "perfected") at some point in the past before something else happened. This tense is formed with the past
tense form of "to have" (HAD) plus the past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in form):
· I had walked two miles by lunchtime.
· I had run three other marathons before entering the Boston Marathon.
Past perfect tense is also joins
with simple past by a relative adverb (when).
Ex:
I had already written a letter when
she came.
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I had walked |
we had walked |
|
you had walked |
you had walked |
|
he/she/it had walked |
they had walked |
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I had been |
we had been |
|
you had been |
you had been |
|
he/she/it had been |
they had been |
Note: Past perfect tense has four
states they are Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative, and Negative Interrogative.
Ex:
Affirmative --------------------------------------I had walked two miles by lunchtime.
Negative ------------------------------------------I hadn’t walked two miles by lunchtime.
Interrogative-------------------------------------Had I walked two miles by lunchtime? Negative Interrogative
------------------------Hadn’t I walked two miles by lunchtime?
d.The Past Perfect Progressive Tense
Subject + had + been + verb (ing) + object / complement
Indicates a continuous action that
was completed at some point in the past. This tense is formed with the modal "HAD" plus "BEEN," plus the present participle
of the verb (with an -ing ending)
Ex:
I had been working in the
garden all morning.
George had been painting
his house for weeks, but he finally gave up.
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic verbs and
not with stative verbs.
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I had been walking |
we had been walking |
|
you had walked |
you had been walking |
|
he/she/it had been walking |
they had been walking |
Note: Past perfect progressive tense
has four states they are Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative, and Negative Interrogative.
Ex:
Affirmative -----------------------------------I
had been working in the garden all morning.
Negative ---------------------------------------I had been working in the garden all morning.
Interrogative ---------------------------------Had I been walking two miles by lunchtime?
Negative Interrogative ---------------------Hadn’t I been walking two miles by lunchtime?
3. The Future Tense
a. Simple Future Tense
b. Future Prograssive Tense
c. Future Perfect Tense
d. Future Perfect Prograssive Tense
a. The Simple Future Tense
Subject
+ will / shall + verb + object / complement
Indicates that an action is in the
future relative to the speaker or writer. There are no inflected forms for the future in English (nothing like those -ed
or -s endings in the other tenses). Instead, the future tense employs the helping verbs will or shall
with the base form of the verb:
Ex:
She will leave soon.
We shall overcome.
The future is also formed with the
use of a form of "go" plus the infinitive of the verb and shows a strong decision:
English can even use the present
to suggest the future tense:
- I am leaving later today.
Future tense is also joined by a connector (if) with simple present tense and shows conditional state.
Ex:
If I have money, I will pay the bill. Or I will pay the bill if I have money.
If he studies hard, he will be a doctor. Or He will
be a doctor if he studies hard.
Note that the auxiliary will
can be combined with "be" and a progressive form of the main verb to create a sense of the future that does not harbor any
hint of insistence (which is possible with the auxiliary alone). For instance, if stress is placed on the word will
in "When will you arrive?” the sentence can sound impatient, insistent. In "When will you be arriving?"
there is less of that emotional overtone.
The construction form of to be + infinitive is used to convey
a sense of planning for the future, command, or contingency.
- There is to be an investigation into the mayor's
business affairs.
- You are to be back on the base by midnight.
- If he is to pass this exam, he'll have to study
harder.
To create a sense of imminent fulfillment,
the word about can be combined with the infinitive.
Other adverbs can be used in similar constructions with various effects:
- He is liable to get in trouble.
- She is certain to do well in college.
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I will walk |
we will walk |
|
you will walk |
you will walk |
|
he/she/it will walk |
they will walk |
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I will be |
we will be |
|
you will be |
you will be |
|
he/she/it will be |
they will be |
Note: Simple Future tense has four
states they are Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative, and Negative Interrogative.
Ex:
Affirmative ------------------------------------------She
will leave soon.
Negative ----------------------------------------------She will not (wont) leave soon.
Interrogative ----------------------------------------Will she leave soon?
Negative Interrogative ----------------------------Won’t she leave soon?
b.The Future
Progressive Tense
Subject
+ shall/ will + be + verb (ing) + object / complement
Indicates continuing action, something that will be happening, going on, at some point in the future. This
tense is formed with the modal "will" plus "be," plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending):
Ex:
I will be running in next
year's Boston Marathon.
Our campaign plans suggest that
the President will be winning the southern vote by November.
The structure (be verb + going to
+ be + verb (ing) + O / C) shows something that will be happening 100% at some point in the future.
Ex:
They are going to be winning the
game.
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic verbs and
not with stative verbs.
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I will be walking |
we will be walking |
|
you will be walking |
you will be walking |
|
he/she/it will be walking |
they will be walking |
|
There is no future progressive for the "to be"
verb. "Will be being" is expressed simply as "will be": "We will be being happy." |
Note: Future progressive tense has
four states they are Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative, and Negative Interrogative.
Ex:
Affirmative ---------------------------
I will be running in next year's Boston Marathon.
Negative ------------------------------- I will not be running in next year's Boston Marathon.
Interrogative ------------------------- Will I be running in next year's Boston Marathon?
Negative Interrogative-------------- Wont I be running in next year's Boston Marathon?
c.The Future Perfect Tense
Subject
+ will / shall + have + verb 3rd form + object / complement
Indicates that an action will have
been completed (finished or "perfected") at some point in the future. This tense is formed with "will" plus "have" plus the
past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in form):
Ex:
I will have spent all my
money by this time next year.
I will have run successfully
in three marathons if I can finish this one.
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I will have walked |
we will have walked |
|
you will have walked |
you will have walked |
|
he/she/it will have walked |
they will have walked |
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I will have been |
we will have been |
|
you will have been |
you will have been |
|
he/she/it will have been |
they will have been |
Note: Future prefect tense has four
states they are Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative, and Negative Interrogative.
Ex:
Affirmative ----------------------
I will have spent all my money by this time next year.
Negative -------------------------- I will not have spent all my money by this time next year.
Interrogative -------------------- Will I have spent all my money by this time next year?
Negative Interrogative-------- Wont I have spent all my money by this time next year?
d.The Future Perfect Progressive Tense
Subject
+ will / shall + have + been + verb (ing) + object / complement
Indicates a continuous action that
will be completed at some point in the future. This tense is formed with the modal "WILL" plus the modal "HAVE" plus "BEEN"
plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending):
Ex:
Next Thursday, I will have been
working on this project for three years.
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic verbs and
not with stative verbs.
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
I will have been walking |
we will have been walking |
|
you will have been walking |
you will have been walking |
|
he/she/it will have been walking |
they will have been walking |
|
There is no future perfect progressive for the
"to be" verb. "Will have been being" is expressed simply as "will have been": "By this time next year we will have been being
on this committee for a decade." |
Note: Future prefect progressive
tense has four states they are Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative, and Negative Interrogative.
Ex:
Affirmative --------------------I
will have been working on this project for three years.
Negative ------------------------I will not have been working on this project for three years.
Interrogative-------------------Will
I have been working on this project for three years?
Negative Interrogative------ Wont I have been working on this project for three years?
